🎾 Arm And Leg Movement¶
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Tóm tắt nội dung (trích từ tài liệu gốc): CHAPTER 45 Whole Body Movement: Coordination of Arms and Legs in Walking and Running Richard N. Hinrichs 45.1 Introduction deltoid. Whatever methods Gerdy used to arrive As Winter et al. so aptly pointed out in Chapter at this opinion were not disclosed. In 1867, Duchenne (English translation, 1949) provided the 33, the upper body has not received as much atten- ftrst real evidence of muscular control of the arm tion as the lower body in locomotion research. It swing. He based his conclusions on clinical obser- is as if the arms and trunk were not important in vations of patients in which the
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CHAPTER 45
Whole Body Movement: Coordination of Arms and Legs
in Walking and Running
Richard N. Hinrichs
45.1 Introduction deltoid. Whatever methods Gerdy used to arrive
As Winter et al. so aptly pointed out in Chapter at this opinion were not disclosed. In 1867,
Duchenne (English translation, 1949) provided the
33, the upper body has not received as much atten- ftrst real evidence of muscular control of the arm
tion as the lower body in locomotion research. It swing. He based his conclusions on clinical obser-
is as if the arms and trunk were not important in vations of patients in which the oscillatory
the overall picture of gait. A few researchers, motions of the upper extremities during walking
however, have wondered why the arms are swung were abolished following atrophy of the deltoid
as they are. Do the arms passively react to move- muscle. He believed the forward swing to be
ments of the shoulders, or are the arms under caused by action of the anterior deltoid and the
muscular control? Do the arms serve any useful backswing by the posterior deltoid. Gravity, he
purpose other than helping to maintain one's contended, played only a minor role. Du Bois-
balance? This chapter reviews the literature in the Reymond (1909) spoke of the arms as serving to
area of upper extremity function in locomotion protect the upper body from excessive rotation and
and its relationship to that of the lower ex- lateral motion, and that the arm swing was partly
tremities. This review is divided into two parts: passive and partly active in nature. He did not,
ftrst, those studies dealing with walking, and however, speculate as to which muscles might be
second, those dealing with running. The chapter responsible for the arm swing.
ends with a discussion of current research and fu-
ture directions in this area of study. Although Elftman (1939; see also Section
45.2.2) provided some further evidence in favor of
45.2 Walking the active role that the muscles play in the arm
swing, Morton and Fuller (1952) evidently were
45.2.1 Early Speculation not familiar with either Elftrnan's or Duchenne's
Nearly all references to upper extremity func- work and continued to perpetuate in their textbook
on locomotion the notion that the arm swing was
tion in walking prior to 1965 were speculative in primarily a passive movement. They argued that
nature. The issue was the underlying mechanism because it requires muscular effort to swing the
of the arm swing. Do the arms passively react to arms while standing still and likewise to keep the
the movements at the shoulders or are they under arms from swinging while walking, it must follow
muscular control? that the arm swing arises without muscular con-
traction. Like Gerdy (1829), Morton and Fuller
Gerdy (1829) believed that the arm swing was did recognize, however, the possible role of the
primarily a reaction to the rotation of the shoulders muscles in increasing the magnitude of the arm
and trunk. He added, however, that sometimes it swing as it is needed.
seemed that the movements of the arms are in-
creased by the involuntary action of the biceps
brachii, the pectoralis major, and one part of the
Multiple Muscle Systems: Biomechanics and Movement Organization
lM. Winters and S.L-Y. Woo (ed.), � 1990 Springer-Verlag
45. Hinrichs; Coordination of Arms and Legs During Walking and Running 695
It is clear from the early speculation on the na- Within subjects, the arm swing was highly
ture of the arm swing in walking that there were reproducible, although some differences existed
considerable differences in opinion as to the na- between right and left arms. These differences
ture of the arm swing in walking. Most were not found to be related to hand dominance.
acknowledged, however, that the muscles might Other comparisons included walking speed
playa role in the arm swing. It was clearly time (greater arm swing amplitude at the fast speed
for some scientific research in this area. than the free speed), stature (taller subjects were
found to have a significantly greater total excur-
45.2.2 Kinematic Studies sion at the elbow joint while walking at the free
By the mid-1960s scientific investigations into speed), and age (not a significant influence on arm
swing).
arm swing were finally underway. In a two-
dimensional kinematic study, Murray et al. (1967) Finally, Murray et al. calculated the path of the
investigated the ranges of normal variability in up- center of mass (eM) of the combined upper ex-
per limb displacement patterns of "normal" tremities and found that it oscillates vertically
subjects. Thirty subjects, ranging in age from 21 through two peaks and two valleys within each
to 66 years, walked overground at a "free" pace walking cycle. The peaks occurred when the arms
(averaging 114 steps/min and 1.54 mls) and a were outstretched forward and backward, and the
"fast" pace (averaging 136 steps/min and 2.14 valleys occurred when the arms were in relatively
mls). Successive positions of reflective targets vertical positions passing the trunk. They com-
placed on the arms were recorded using a camera pared this to the results from a previous study by
with an open shutter and a stroboscope flashing at Fischer (1899) for the vertical oscillation of the
20Hz.
entire body eM during walking and noted that the
The investigators plotted the rotational patterns
at the shoulder and elbow joints as functions of vertical oscillation of the arms would be 180" out
time. The mean patterns reported by Murray et al. of phase with that of the whole body. This sug-
of shoulder and elbow rotation are shown in gests that the arm swing would tend to decrease
Figure 45.1. The investigators found the arm
swing to be the most variable (between subjects) the total vertical excursion of the whole body eM
of the 20 gait components they had measured.
The main source of variability was the amplitude from what it would be if the arms did not swing.
of the arm swing. The temporal patterns were They suggested that this may lead to a decrease in
quite consistent between subjects. energy expenditure in gait
A. Hinrichs and Cavanagh (1981) provided some
additional data on the two-dimensional kinematics
SMOUlO�l F/ of the arm swing in walking (their kinetic and
EMG results are reviewed in Sections 45.2.3 and
... 45.2.4, respectively). These investigators used
five subjects, each walking barefoot at two dif-
ww ferent speeds on a treadmill, a "slow" speed (0.9
~ i'20 mls) and a "medium" speed (1.2 mls). Films were
! !'lO !. F/ taken from the left side of the body as the subjects
walked on the treadmill. Only the left side of the
~Soo I body was analyzed from film. The movements of
E lOW the right side were assumed to be 50% out of phase
~ ~ so with the left.
1- ~;;0 Of particular relevance to this kinematics dis-
cussion are the investigators' findings on the
~ ~ k !30
vertical oscillations of the eM of the arms and the
>< 20 +!.':..,�-_.----......---....,...--~ eM of the rest of the body (termed body-minus-
IO o 25 50 75 100 arms, BMA). The results from a single subject are
shown in Figure 45.2. Contrary to the findings of
'0 CENT Of 'ilI"l.{ING C'l'ClE
Murray et al. (1967) the oscillations of the eM of
!i
Figure 45.1: Mean patterns of shoulder and elbow the arms were not found to be 1800 out of phase
rotation during walking as functions of time. (From with those of the BMA. In fact, at the slow speed,
Murrayet aI., 1967; reprinted with permission from
Physical Therapy, copyright 1967, American Physical
Therapy Association).)