🎾 Giải Phẫu And Perspective The Nền Tảng Of Figure Drawing¶
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Giải Phẫu And Perspective The Nền Tảng Of Figure Drawing — tài liệu 132 trang từ thư viện sách tennis.
Chủ đề chính: Giải phẫu, Tâm lý
Tóm tắt nội dung (trích từ tài liệu gốc): Acknowledgments Acknowledgments are due to the following: Fig. 10, Robert Clatworthy. Fig. 32, Wallace Collection, London. Fig. 33, Courtauld Institute, London. Figs. 55, 95, British Museum, London. Figs. 6 1 and 62 are reproduced by courtesy of the Trustees, The National Gallery, London. Fig. 70, Fogg Museum, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A. Figs. 88, 89, Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool. Copyright � 1972 by Charles W. Oliver All rights reserved. Bibliographical Note This Dover edition, first published in 2004, is an unabridged republication of the edition published by The Viking Press, Inc., Ne
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Acknowledgments
Acknowledgments are due to the following:
Fig. 10, Robert Clatworthy.
Fig. 32, Wallace Collection, London.
Fig. 33, Courtauld Institute, London.
Figs. 55, 95, British Museum, London.
Figs. 6 1 and 62 are reproduced by courtesy of the
Trustees, The National Gallery, London.
Fig. 70, Fogg Museum, Cambridge, Massachusetts,
U.S.A.
Figs. 88, 89, Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool.
Copyright � 1972 by Charles W. Oliver All rights reserved.
Bibliographical Note
This Dover edition, first published in 2004, is an unabridged republication of the
edition published by The Viking Press, Inc., New York, 1972.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Oliver, Charles, 1911-
Anatomy and perspective: the fundamentals of figure drawing / Charles Oliver.
p. cm.
Originally published: New York: Viking Press, 1972.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
9780486146409
1. Figure drawing. 2. Anatomy, Artistic. 3. Perspective. 1. Title.
NC760.04 2004
743.4--dc22
2003064611
Manufactured in the United States of America Dover Publications, Inc., 31 East
2nd Street, Mineola, N.Y 11501
Table of Contents
Title Page
Acknowledgments
Copyright Page
Epigraph
Introduction
General drawing
The anatomy of the figure
The head
Accessories
Conclusion
Notes on the illustrations
Bibliography
Index
`You must have no dependence on your own genius. If you have great talents,
industry will improve them; if you have but moderate abilities, industry will
supply their deficiency. Nothing is denied to well-directed labour: nothing is to
be obtained without it.'
SIR JOSHUA REYNOLDS--Discourse II on Art.
Introduction
This book cannot teach you to draw the nude figure. Only constant practice can
do that. Drawing and painting the figure is not merely an exercise in copying
photographically, it is rather a re-creation of the form seen; a selection, made by
the artist, of some features of the original. Thus when Ingres (fig. 70) draws in
line only, the drawing is not unfinished because it lacks the light and shade of
Seurat (fig. 33)--it is merely a different interpretation.
The human figure is a complex machine, a super machine, and like most
machines is a thing of great beauty. The ancient Greek artists and their
Renaissance successors realized this. Believing that man was the noblest of
creatures they strove to seek the formula for the perfect form.
With the formation of the Academies in Europe, figure drawing became the
most important part of the course, and it is only during the present century, with
its completely new values in art, that figure drawing in the old academic sense
has waned; anatomy and perspective are touched on only very lightly. Drawing
from the nude figure is still a stimulating exercise calling for keenness of
observation and depth of perception. For those who wish, for various reasons, to
draw the figure, it must be said again that only constant practice can yield
results. Given this, the student will, I hope, find that the notes and drawings
which follow provide a useful background and lead to further study. W. R.
Sickert once said that whenever he saw a book on drawing he always bought it
as there was bound to be some suggestion in it somewhere which was new to
him. I hope that this book will contain something somewhere for each individual
reader.
Every draughtsman develops his own ideas about drawing partly from his
early training and partly from his subsequent practice. I make no claim to being
able to draw in many different manners and cannot impart tips for drawing in
different ways. My own concept of drawing has been, and is, that of the
appreciation of form in its three-dimensional aspect. It is this conception of
figure drawing which I have offered to my students and it is largely for teaching
purposes over many years that I have tried to crystallize these ideas into a
coherent form.
In this book there will constantly be found an insistence on knowledge of the
human figure--the sort of knowledge which I believe to be of use to the figure
draughtsman. Many of the suggestions relate to general principles of drawing
and although these are found in most good books on drawing I have restated
them in my own way and with my own diagrams. Much of the space is allotted
to the anatomy of the figure, but I am not a professional anatomist and this is not
a treatise on anatomy. For those who wish to pursue anatomy further there are
many excellent books, mainly old (see Bibliography, page 95). Not all good
draughtsmen have had Michelangelo's profound appreciation of anatomy.
Some space is also devoted to various ideas of perspective and geometry,
although for the deeper study of these subjects there are specialist books
available.
My main aim is understanding: understanding of the form of the body--the
ability to recognize that form as revealed by light and line, and how to express it
graphically--the ability to create not merely the rhythm of lines, lovely as this
can be in the hands of a master, but to be able to establish a rhythmical
relationship of form to form.
General drawing
Preparation for drawing
Drawing is, at its simplest, the making of marks on a surface. Therefore any tool
which will mark and any surface which will receive marks, is suitable for use.
The various media available are consequently too numerous to list in detail, but
there are some which, because of their availability, lend themselves more readily
than others. If my first premise is true then drawing and painting become
inseparable. There is little doubt that in referring to drawing, or in producing a
book on drawing, we are thinking of some limitation of medium and usually a
restriction of colour range. Most of the drawings and diagrams in this book will
have been made on paper with instruments traditionally used for such work--
pencil, chalk, pen and ink, etc. The paper may be white or coloured, the chalks
and inks black or coloured.
The medium will probably be important to the individual artist. One may use
black or red crayon while another may prefer pen and ink. Whatever your choice
of medium you may well be fastidious in your choice of materials. It would be
wise always to have a choice of media to hand, but I think it would be a wrong
attitude to decide beforehand which medium to use. On a particular occasion the
figure may seem to call for interpretation in a linear way and therefore a pencil
or pen line may seem to offer the best means of expression. On the other hand, if
the figure and its surroundings create an exciting pattern of dark and light areas,
then perhaps charcoal or brush and washes may seem more suitable. Such a
decision is better made when you have seen the model's setting. On pages 38�9
you will find a collection of sketches in different media (figs. 36�40).
Transcending the question of media is the problem of expressing something of
the interest of the various forms of the body, its rhythms and integrations. The
draughtsman's method of approach is also very important. A brief note with a
stubby pencil on the back of an envelope may, if taken at the right moment, have
more vitality than the most elaborately wrought drawing done with the best
quality materials. However, in setting out to pursue a serious course of study in
drawing the figure, it would be foolish not to have suitable materials, so these
should not be completely neglected.
Fig. 1
A very important item of equipment is the drawing board. For normal use this
need not be more than half imperial size, 22 in. � 15 in. (56 cm. � 38 cm.). It
should be light but rigid, and soft enough to take drawing pins easily, and its
corners and edges should be absolutely true. Drawing paper should be placed
precisely on the board so that its edges and those of the board are exactly
parallel, and then pinned or clipped firmly. If for any reason the paper or board is
not truly rectangular, the right-handed draughtsman should try to arrange for the
right-hand edge of paper and board to be parallel. The reason for this is quite
simple. In drawing you must be constantly estimating the angles of direction of
contours, and the vertical edge of the paper or board is a valuable constant or
datum. If the edges of paper and board are both parallel then all is well, but if
not, which one is to be regarded as the datum--paper or board?
All directions have to be estimated in relation to others. It is an axiom of
geometry that `things equal to the same thing are equal to one another'. This
might be developed to read `directions related to one constant direction
(horizontal or vertical) must be related to each other'. You must therefore, at all
times, be acutely aware of a sense of the horizontal and vertical, as if you had a
engraved on your eye (fig. 2).
Fig. 2 On a number of the sloping contours I have marked a cross of vertical and
horizontal axes to suggest the constant awareness of the direction of lines, rather
like the hair lines in some viewfinders.
Fig. 3
One purely practical consideration may be worth mentioning here. An easy
way of drawing a straight, freehand, vertical line is by hooking the little finger
over the edge of the board (fig. 3). The hand can move freely up and down the
board to draw vertical lines or to check for vertical relationships. If the paper is
pinned askew, or much worse, not pinned at all, such verticals are useless. I
make no apology for labouring this point, because I believe that the accurate
transcription of directions is fundamental to good drawing.
When drawing from the model, some people may prefer to stand at an easel,
others may prefer to sit. This is a personal matter. Large drawings may need to
be done standing at an easel so that you can step back a pace or two, from time
to time, to estimate the relationship between one part and another. Smaller
drawings--up to half imperial size--can be comfortably managed sitting down.
Try to sit so that the drawing board and the model can be seen with equal ease. I
prefer to hold the board almost vertical on my knees. When drawing with a pen
and wash the board must be in a nearly horizontal position so that a, the ink can
run down to the tip of the nib and b, the wash does not run too quickly down the
paper. It is almost impossible to do a pen and wash drawing at an easel.
Fig. 5 Pencil and wash drawing--no lines rubbed out.
Whether standing or sitting, make sure that the board is adequately lit. If
board and model can be seen with equal ease it will be relatively easy to keep
both under constant observation with minimum movement of eyes and head.
One reason for this is that in transferring impressions from model to paper the
time-lag should be as short as possible. The eyes should be on the model as
much as on the drawing. I have often watched students at work, engrossed in
drawing in (and rubbing out) with only an occasional glance at the model. In
contrast to this, I recall an occasion when I was drawing in the life class at the
Royal College of Art when the (then) Principal, Sir William Rothenstein, came
to my easel and began to draw, exclaiming `Watch my eyes, watch my eyes'.
Although this was rather comic at the time, I realized that he was the whole time
observing the model, with only occasional glances at the paper.
Avoid the bad habit of rubbing out every few seconds. Nothing is more
conducive to feeble, indecisive drawing. There are occasions when it may be
necessary to erase a detail, but in general it is a time-wasting process. Drawings
made direct from the figure do not depend on neatness nor even on absolute
correctness of line for their quality. If you draw a line in the wrong place, or the
model should move, necessitating alteration of any lines, carry on with the
drawing by making the necessary correction. If later the false lines really
interfere with the clarity of the drawing, then perhaps an eraser may be used. An
examination of the drawing in fig. 5 will show that various attempts at the line
were made before the artist was satisfied.
It is sometimes possible to begin with very delicate lines, strengthening these
in the process of developing the drawing. In drawing with ink it is, of course,
impossible to draw pale lines and impossible to rub out. In such circumstances
tentative lines may be drawn as thinly as possible, or even fine dotted lines may
be used. Consideration should be given as to where a line is going to start and
finish before embarking on it. Do not, under any circumstances, go over the
outlines a second time merely to make them clearer or more precise. In drawing
with a pen, explore the lines from the outset with the pen. Never draw in the
outline with pencil first and then trace over with pen.
When figure drawing is practised as an end in itself it is, I think, true to say
that to travel is better than to arrive. Most of our figure drawings, when
completed, have little values as pictures. It is in the doing of them that the
interest lies. For this reason I care not whether your drawings are done on fine
quality Ingres paper or on cheap sugar paper, nor will they be better for being
done in red crayon than in ordinary HB pencil.
Try to have a purpose when starting to draw. Examine the situation carefully.
Study the model, the surroundings, the lighting. If there is room, move round the
figure to find the best angle. When drawing in a life class it often happens that
either the model or the pose may not be particularly exciting, but usually some
feature is worthy of attention--perhaps the way the neck sits on the shoulders, or
the stress in a leg, or even the ground plan of the feet and any supporting
furniture. If you are absolutely convinced that there is nothing there of any
interest, then it is better not to draw the figure at all. Draw your colleagues in the
class, draw the furniture, draw any cast from the antique that may be available.
But do not do a bored drawing. Draw well if you can, badly if you must--but
don't be bored or boring.
Elementary principles
There was a time when beginners were not allowed to draw from life until they
had satisfied their tutors that they had done sufficient anatomical study and
drawing from casts of the antique sculptures and had thus acquired reasonable
facility in drawing; nor were they allowed to paint until they had a substantial
groundwork in drawing. Nowadays the casts have been swept away, anatomy
and perspective are often taught only superficially, and the trend has been away
from meticulous representation of the figure. Much of the drudgery and tedium
has gone from preliminary study, but nevertheless, if you wish to attain
proficiency in figure drawing, some foundation work is necessary. While figure
drawing is wonderfully fascinating it is also very difficult and can be frustrating
to the beginner; there is much to be said for serving an apprenticeship in drawing
inanimate objects and learning some elements of draughtsmanship in general and
figure drawing in particular.
One of the essential requirements is a keen, observant eye. Drawing is
essentially the making of lines and shapes on a surface. If the drawing is to have
any meaning for an observer, that is, if it is to communicate an idea to another
person, then the lines and shapes must create a pattern which he will recognize
and be an accurate expression of what the draughtsman wishes to communicate.
In representational drawing it is necessary to acquire the technique of accurate
representation in the same way that an executant musician must acquire
complete mastery of his instrument in order to convey a convincing presentation
of a composer's idea. This can most easily be demonstrated by one or two simple
experiments. Think for a moment of a horizontal straight line. Then try, in a
drawing, to communicate the idea. The result would be thus:
Fig. 6
The only characteristic possessed by this straight line is direction. This line goes
from east to west (or vice versa) but there are hundreds of directions in which
lines may go. So obviously in drawing of any sort it is of vital importance to
determine precisely in which direction the lines shall move.
In drawing from the figure it will be necessary, firstly, to assess the direction
in which various contours or relationships are moving, and secondly, to be able
to reproduce these directions on paper or canvas.
Once a line is drawn, the next factor is its length. `How long is a line?' sounds
rather like `How long is a piece of string?'. One line is any length, but two lines
immediately create a relationship. So draw a line AB of any length in any
direction.
Fig. 7
Now extend it indefinitely through B. Mark off (by eye) point C so that BC= AB.
Check the result with a ruler. How accurate were you? C1 was my estimate; C2
is the measured truth.
This then is a matter of proportion. In its simplest form drawing is a
relationship of direction and proportion.
Now draw a square. How do you go about it? I did it this way--first of all the
line AB. Then, by eye, the verticals AC and BD. These must, of course, be really
vertical, that is, at 90� to AB, not 80� nor 91� and must be exactly the same
length as AB. Join CD. C1D1 was my estimate, C2D2 the measured truth. Not
quite so easy as you might imagine, but this sort of estimation of directions and
proportions must occur in every drawing. In the figure it is much more difficult
and has to be repeated many times.
One way of assessing directions and proportions is by triangulation. The
simplest demonstration of this occurs in the copying of a triangle ABC (fig. 9)
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Fig. 55 Study of a figure from the cartoon Soldiers surprised when bathing by
Michelangelo (1475�1564); British Museum, London. About 1504
Michelangelo was commissioned to paint a large mural in the Council Hall of
the Palazzo Vecchio to balance one by Leonardo da Vinci. In the event neither
fresco was realized. This study for one of the figures shows Michelangelo's
sensitive use of the pen--rather like a sculptor's chisel criss-crossing the forms.
Fig. 61 The Duchess of Milan by Hans Holbein the Younger (1497/8�1543);
National Gallery, London. Holbein, a German, worked during his last decade in
England. He is chiefly known as a portraitist and has left behind a wonderful
record of the people and costumes of the time of Henry VIII. The Duchess of
Milan was a prospective bride for King Henry. Holbein's drawing is clear and
unemotional and one can be certain that his portraits are true likenesses of the
people represented.
Fig. 62 Le Chapeau de Paille by Peter Paul Rubens (1577�1640); National
Gallery, London. Rubens was one of the great personalities of art and indeed of
seventeenth-century Europe; a man of tremendous ability, culture and energy. He
produced a vast amount of work, conducted a large `painting factory', was the
friend and adviser of kings (Philip IV of Spain and Charles 1 of England). His
work seems to gather together many of the qualities of Florentine
draughtsmanship, Venetian colouring and Flemish realism. In his hands oil paint
has an exciting fluidity. He is the great master of the Baroque period.
Fig. 70 Study of male and female figures for L'Age d'Or by Jean Auguste
Dominique Ingres (1780�1867); Fogg Museum, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
Although his paintings have a certain beauty, Ingres is essentially a draughtsman.
All his paintings, portraits and subject pictures, were preceded by numerous
drawings. Although he is regarded as the leader of the Neoclassicists in
nineteenth-century France, in fact his drawings have a deep sensuousness.
Fig. 88 Portrait of William Clayton by Sir Godfrey Kneller (1646�1723); Walker
Art Gallery, Liverpool. Kneller, a German, was trained in Holland and Italy and
spent most of his life in England. He was dedicated to portrait painting and soon
became the leading painter. His works are elegant and flattering but rather
superficial. Due to his success and to his Academy (1711) he exerted great
influence on English painting. Many works were completed by studio assistants.
He is particularly notable for the Kit Cat portraits (National Portrait Gallery,
London) which gave a name to a standard-sized portrait canvas (36" � 28") still
used by portraitists.
Fig. 89 Portrait of Elizabeth Cotman by Allan Ramsay (1713�84); Walker Art
Gallery, Liverpool. A Scotsman, exactly contemporary with Reynolds and
Gainsborough, Ramsay was able to compete in the field of portraiture with these
two giants although his work is generally less romanticized. This early portrait
(1734) shows Ramsay's ability to observe faithfully the characters of his sitters
and their clothes. Horace Walpole wrote, `Reynolds seldom succeeds in women,
Ramsay is formed to paint them'.
Fig. 95 `Adam' by Michelangelo (1475�1564); British Museum, London. Not all
experts are in agreement on the authenticity of this drawing. It is, however, a
magnificent study for (or of) the Creation of Adam in the centre of the ceiling of
the Sistine Chapel, Rome. It has great power resulting from perfect
understanding of the human body and graceful rhythm of forms, partly inherited
from the antique sculpture.
Bibliography
Tables of the Skeleton and Muscles of the Human Body by Bernard Siegfried
Albinus; London, 1749
Anatomical Studies for the Use of Artists by John Flaxman, R.A. ; London,1833
A Manual of Artistic Anatomy for the Use of Students in Art by John C. L.
Sparkes; London, 1888
Handbook of Anatomy for Art Students by Arthur Thompson, M.A., M.B.;
Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1899
Anatomy for Artists by Eugene Wolff; H. K. Lewis & Co., London,1955
Anatomy for the Artist by Jeno Barcsay; Spring Books, London, 1960; Tudor,
New York, 1958
Index
Accessories
Accuracy
Albinus, Bernard Siegfried frontis.,
Anatomy
Ankle, bones of
Arm
--bones of
--muscles of
Backbone
Bones
--of foot
--of hand
--of head
--of lower limb
--of trunk
--of upper limb
Cezanne
Chest
Clark, Sir Kenneth
Clatworthy, Robert
Clothing
Collar bone
Direction of lines
Drawing board
Ear
Elbow joint
Elementary principles of drawing
Eye
Female figure (comparison with male)
Foot
--bones of
--muscles of
Forearm
Form
Forms in human figure
Hair
Hands
--bones of
--muscles of
Head
--bones of
--forms of
--muscles of
Holbein, Hans
Ingres
Jaw
Knee joint
Kneller, Sir Godfrey
Leg
--bones of
--muscles of
Leonardo da Vinci
Lower limb
Light and shadow
Male figure (comparison with female)
Materials
Media, choice of
Michelangelo
Mouth
Muscles
--of arm
--of foot
--of hand
--of leg
--of trunk
--operating a joint
--tension of
Neck
Nose
Overlapping contours
Paper
Pelvis
Perspective
Preparation for drawing
Proportion
Proportions of body
Ramsay, Allan
Raoux, Jean
Recession
Reynolds, Sir Joshua
Ribs
Rubens
Seurat, Georges
Shapes
Shoulder
--mechanism of
Shoulder blade
Side view of figure
Skeleton
Skull
Spine(see also `Backbone')
Triangulation
Trunk
--bones of
--muscles of
Upper limb
Vertebral column
Volume
Wrist