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Movement for Tennis: The Importance of Lateral
Training
Article in Strength and conditioning journal � July 2009
Impact Factor: 0.6 � DOI: 10.1519/SSC.0b013e3181afe806
CITATIONS READS
11 556
1 author:
Mark Kovacs
Life University
30 PUBLICATIONS 426 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
All in-text references underlined in blue are linked to publications on ResearchGate, Available from: Mark Kovacs
letting you access and read them immediately. Retrieved on: 09 May 2016
Movement for Tennis: The
Importance of Lateral
Training
Mark S. Kovacs, PhD, CSCS
Player Development, United States Tennis Association, Boca Raton, Florida
SUMMARY specific to the position the athletes are directional changes per point (15,27)
in on the court and what type of shot but can range from a single movement
TENNIS IS A SPORT THAT RE- their opponent has just made. There- to more than 15 directional changes on
QUIRES HUNDREDS OF DIREC- fore, it is vastly different than teaching a very long point. In a competitive
TIONAL MOVEMENT CHANGES a wide receiver how to break from the match, it is common for players to have
DURING EVERY MATCH AND line of scrimmage or a track sprinter more than 1,000 direction changes. At
PRACTICE. THE MAJORITY OF starting from the blocks. Tennis is the French Open (one of the 4 major
MOVEMENTS IN TENNIS ARE IN A a highly reactive sport, and movement professional tournaments, also known
LATERAL DIRECTION, AND THE training needs to progress from a simple as Grand Slam events), which is played
DEVELOPMENT OF THE MUSCLES, closed skill environment to an open on a clay surface, a study was un-
MOVEMENTS, AND NEURAL RE- skill environment using visual stimuli. It dertaken on 1,540 strokes to determine
SPONSES NEEDS TO BE A FOCUS is important for coaches and trainers to the typical distances covered. Re-
OF ALL TENNIS TRAINING PRO- understand the role of cognition and searchers found that 80% of all strokes
GRAMS. THIS ARTICLE HIGH- decision making in an athlete's ability were played with less than 2.5 m and
LIGHTS THE TYPICAL MOVEMENTS to react to a stimulus (tennis ball). This fewer than 5% of strokes were played
DURING TENNIS PLAY, WHICH IN ability to react will have a direct effect requiring more than 4.5 m between
MANY RESPECTS ARE UNIQUE TO on the perceived speed and agility of strokes (24). Other similar studies have
TENNIS, AND PRACTICAL EXAM- tennis players. As the purpose of this found movement distances on average
PLES OF EXERCISES TO HELP article is to examine the physical to be approximately 4 m per change of
TRAIN LATERAL MOVEMENTS ARE aspects of lateral specific movement direction (25). Relatively short distan-
PROVIDED. for tennis, limited discussion will be on ces that a player covers on each stroke
the important area of cognition and are typically less than 2.0 m, yet under
INTRODUCTION decision making. More in-depth dis- higher time pressure (increased run-
cussion and review of cognition and ning demand), athletes can run on
I mproving an athlete's tennis- decision making can be found in the average about 4 m (maximum of
specific movement requires the literature (32). between 8 and 12 m) (33). It is
coach or trainer to understand the interesting to note that tennis players
movement patterns that occur during TYPICAL MOVEMENT DEMANDS can cover about 0.25 to 0.50 m more on
play, as tennis movement is highly In competitive tennis, the average their forehand side than their back-
situation specific and is performed in point length is less than 10 seconds hand side (33). These are important
a reactive environment (14). This (11,12) with the recovery between findings, as most speed and quickness
irregularity of movement and the need points usually between 20 and 25 programs for other sports focus on
to continually respond to situations seconds depending on certain rules. distances that are longer where
require the coach to spend time un- After every 2 games (minimum of 8 a full traditional acceleration position
derstanding the athlete's game style, points), the athlete has a 90-second may be reached. In tennis, it is rare
strategy, movement strengths, and break before the next point is played. that distances are achieved where
weakness, which will help aid the Although every tennis point is vastly
development of a tennis-specific move- different, it is helpful for the coach to KEY WORDS:
ment training program. Although ten- understand the movement require-
nis movement has some consistent ments of competitive tennis. Tennis tennis; lateral; movement; agility; change
traits among all athletes, it is highly players make an average of 4 of direction; speed; quickness
Copyright � National Strength and Conditioning Association Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org 77
Movement for Tennis: The Importance of Lateral Training
a traditional acceleration technique singles matches found that rallies from The pivot step involves pivoting on
will be experienced by the athlete. women's singles matches (average 7.1 the lead foot while turning the hip
Furthermore, the majority of tennis seconds) were significantly longer than toward the ball and making the first
movements are lateral. In a study of rallies from men's singles matches (5.2 step actually toward the ball with the
professional players' movement, it was seconds). Rallies on clay courts at the opposite leg (Figure 1).
found that more than 70% of move- professional level were significantly
ments were side to side with less than longer than any other surface (23). The gravity step involves bringing the
20% of movements in a forward di- In a study looking at baseline points lead foot in toward the body and
rection and less than 8% of movements as a percentage of total points at the away from the direction of the
in a backward direction (33). This is 4 Grand Slams found (23): oncoming ball and ultimately away
a vitally important statistic for coaches French Open (clay court) 51% from the direction of the intended
and trainers because the development Australian Open (hard court) 46% movement (Figure 1). This small
of lateral acceleration and deceleration US Open (hard court) 35% step (unweighting) actually moves
in the distances described above are Wimbledon (grass) 19% the center of gravity outside the base
the major determining factors in great Another interesting difference between of support.
tennis movement. It is known that surfaces is that on hard court pro-
linear acceleration, linear maximum fessional players are under increased In a study that compared the jab, pivot,
velocity, and agility are all separate time pressure 45% of time, whereas it is and gravity steps on tennis movement,
and distinct biomotor skills that need only 29% on clay courts (25). There- it was found that the fastest method to
to be trained separately (36), as training fore, coaches need to take these move laterally was by using the gravity
one will not directly impact the statistics into account when preparing step (2). The authors speculated that
improvement of the other. Therefore, athletes for hard court events versus the greater speed to the ball and
preferred training recommendations clay court events. greater control were due to the fact
for tennis should be to focus training that the gravity step produces an
between 60 to 80% of the time on LATERAL MOVEMENT IN TENNIS overall movement toward the ball after
lateral movements, 10 to 30% of the With lateral focused agility training, the the initial movement of the lead leg in
time on linear forward movements, and spinal reflex times of the following a direction away from the ball. Unlike
only about 10% of the time on linear muscles improve (vastus medialis/lateral the jab step (where the center of
backward movement. medialis due to anterior tibialis trans- gravity remains between the base of
lation) and the cortical response time support), the gravity step creates
HOW DIFFERENT SURFACES improves in the gastrocnemius medial a ``dynamic imbalance'' (2). This
INFLUENCE TENNIS MOVEMENT hamstring (semimembranosus, semite- movement of the center of gravity
ndinosus) (35). This is helpful for outside the base of support actually
Tennis is played on a number of coaches when designing training pro- assists in moving the body laterally to
different playing surfaces, even at the grams in the gym, as it should help to the ball. This is a similar principle to
professional level. Although there are focus training on the specific muscle and the back step (or drop step) seen when
dozens of different surfaces around movements that can help improve lateral athletes attempt to break inertia in
the world, for sake of discussion, there movement performance. There are a a forward direction (17). Currently,
are 3 major groups of surfaces that multitude of movements that a tennis limited data are available in the tennis
players typically compete on--hard athlete performs during every match or literature on how best to structure
courts, clay courts, and grass courts. practice (in a perfect scenario, all possible lateral movement training programs
These different court surfaces result in movements and distances will be using varying volumes and intensities.
different movement requirements due trained); however, in most practical More research is needed to provide the
to the speed, cushioning, and friction situations, a time-efficient training pro- coach with greater insight into vol-
of the court. Brody (4) has found that gram needs to be implemented. To aid umes, intensities, and loading patterns
the horizontal frictional force greatly the coach in understanding the typical for tennis-specific lateral movement
affects ball speed and is a determining elements used during lateral movement training.
factor in court speed. There can be as on court, there are 3 distinct initiating
much as a 15% difference in ball speed movements that are usually used by RECOVERY MOVEMENT
after the bounce, depending on the players during baseline movement--jab
court surface. Typically, a clay court is step, pivot step, and the gravity step. Recovery movement occurs immedi-
slower than a hard court. This re- The jab step has been defined as ately after the athletes have completed
duction in ball speed allows athletes their stroke and they are attempting to
more time to reach the ball, therefore stepping first with the lead foot in return to a position that will allow for
lengthening the duration of points the direction of the oncoming ball efficient movement toward the next
played on clay courts. A computerized (Figure 1). stroke. There are 2 typical movement
notational analysis of 252 professional positions used during the recovery
movement--the lateral crossover (Fig-
ure 2) or the lateral shuffle (Figure 3).
78 VOLUME 31 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2009
Figure 1. Three different lateral tennis movements: the jab, pivot, and gravity steps.
The lateral crossover is more appro- shot (27). It is important to incorporate game, the movement patterns of play-
priate for movements that require both of these when structuring tennis ers have been adapted. Early descrip-
quicker responses and greater distances movement sessions. tions of the split step reported both feet
(27). The lateral shuffle is more com- landing on the court simultaneously (9)
mon when the athlete has a little extra SPLIT STEP MISCONCEPTION and then the athlete would react left,
time to get back in position before Due to the evolution of tennis and the right, forward, or backward depending
having to explosively move to the next reliance on speed and power in today's on where the ball was hit. However,
Figure 2. Lateral crossover step.
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org 79
Movement for Tennis: The Importance of Lateral Training
Figure 3. Lateral shuffle step.
due to advances in the speed of the of their feet. However, this is a mis- of information on this area has been
sport and the coaches' ability to conception that tennis players move performed on linear movements as
analyze athletes using high-speed this way on court. This has stemmed well as vertical jumping activities, and
video, it has emerged that elite players from the fact that tennis players more information is still needed
actually react in the air during the split typically have callous formation on on tennis-specific agility-induced re-
and land on the foot furthest from their the balls and toes of their feet. When sponses. Maximal intensity movements
intended target a split second ahead of analyzing foot and ankle movement require high levels of neural activation
their other foot. An example would be mechanics of tennis players, it is clear (21). From the literature, it has been
the right-handers preparing to hit that they use a similar heel to toe shown that measurable neurological
a forehand, would land on their left progression that is used by runners and parameters (nerve conduction velocity
foot first (Figure 4). Before the right other athletes (28). Therefore, the ``on (NCV), maximal electromyography
foot touches the ground, the athletes their toes'' coaching cue should be [EMG], motor unit recruitment, and
subtly rotate their hip externally to- eliminated from the tennis trainer's H-reflex) alter in response to physical
ward the intended movement toward vernacular. training (29), specifically speed train-
the ball. In the right-handed player, this ing. Differences in running technique
would result in the right foot landing NEURAL ASPECTS OF MOVEMENT and muscle activation patterns have
pointing outward (Figure 4). The Developing an athlete's maximum been reported among trained sprint
movement pattern described above movement capabilities on the tennis athletes compared with controls or
has been a natural evolution to im- court requires the combination of endurance athletes (29).
prove the athletes' ability to react to technical, physical, and neural devel-
the incoming ball and maximize their opment. This section will discuss the NERVE CONDUCTION VELOCITY
movement to time ratio. aspects of neural development that NCV is a measure of the speed an
should be understood to aid the coach impulse can be transmitted along a
``ON THEIR TOES'' in the implementation of tennis- motor neuron and is strongly related
Many coaches profess to their tennis specific movement training. However, to muscle contraction time (1,18). A
athletes to play on their toes (or balls) it must be understood that the majority rapid NCV is a representation of a short
Figure 4. Split step.
80 VOLUME 31 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2009
refractory period. This decreased re- been about 190 milliseconds (0.19 Figure 5. First step position from a
fractory period may allow for greater seconds) for light stimuli and about stationary start--initial linear
impulse frequency, which would result 160 milliseconds (0.16 seconds) for acceleration (reprinted with
in an increased level of muscle sound stimuli (3,7). However, the fastest permission from Kovacs et al.
activation. athletes in the world consistently have (15)).
reaction times less than 0.15 seconds
MOTOR NEURON EXCITABILITY (8,20). In identical events, women have quicker responses. Sprinting technique
AND REFLEX ADAPTATION been shown to have longer reaction during an athlete's acceleration is vastly
times than men (22). However, reaction different to that of an athlete who is
An increase in motor neuron excitabil- time does not correlate well with sprints running at or near maximum velocity
ity leads to a more powerful muscle lasting longer than a few seconds (20), (19,31) (Figure 5). Most competitive
contraction (26). Motor neuron excit- yet it does correlate very well with athletes do not reach maximum veloc-
ability is commonly assessed using the distances typically seen in tennis play ity until 40 to 60 m (depending on
H-reflex. The H-reflex is often re- (20). Therefore, training an athlete to training level/genetic ability). As men-
garded as a monosynaptic reflex re- improve reaction time should be a com- tioned previously, tennis athletes typ-
sponse analogous to the tendon reflex, ponent of training tennis movement, ically move less than 2.5 m and rarely
although it is elicited by electrical alongside technique, strength, and exceed 5 m and less than 30% of
stimulation (29). Training should have power. In many training drills, a visual movements are forward/backward
the goal of increasing this motor stimulus should be used to help develop (33). It is imperative that the majority
neuron excitability to improve the visual reaction time. An auditory stim- of training programs are structured
speed and force of the muscle contrac- ulus (whistle, voice, and hand clap) is appropriately to train specifically for
tion to improve movement. During the less tennis specific than the visual cue. the movements experienced during
stance phase, evidence suggests that The benefit of progressing from no tennis.
the stretch reflex makes a strong stimulus to a single visual stimulus to
contribution to leg extensor EMG, multiple visual stimuli will help develop Figure 6. Lateral movement with med-
aiding propulsive force (6). Muscle an athlete's ability to react. Improving icine ball catch (backhand
pre-activity (activity before ground the athletes' choice reaction time (hav- sequence for a right-handed
contact) likely increases muscle spindle ing to respond to more than 1 stimulus player). This drill can be done
sensitivity, potentiating the stretch re- (34)) may help the tennis athletes in to the forehand side as well.
flex contribution (19). The utilization their reactions on court and would be
of plyometric focused programs needs advisable to add this as a training
to be implemented with a lateral focus. stimulus during off-court training. A
Tendon compliance is the degree of study looking at average reaction times
compliance of the tendon, which (from ball machine release to initial
affects the force through the muscle racket movement) in skilled tennis
and the resultant feedback from the players' volleys was 0.226 seconds for
muscle spindles. It has been speculated the forehand and 0.205 seconds for the
that training for strength and power will backhand (5). It is important to teach
enhance the length feedback compo- movement technique before progress-
nent that originates from the muscle ing to more challenging environments
spindles, which may be enhanced by including visual stimulus.
training, possibly improving muscle
stiffness on contact (1,10,13). This is INITIATING MOVEMENT
then hypothesized to improve ground
reaction forces (GRFs) and translate After breaking inertia, the athlete's aim
into more powerful movements. is to increase acceleration. Faster
athletes have greater force production
REACTION TIME and horizontal velocity than the slower
athletes during the last contact points
One other area that can have an on the ground (22). This means that
immediate impact on how fast an the power output at the last stage of
athlete appears in short distances is the ground contact is higher in faster
athlete's reaction time. Reaction time is athletes, and this is an area that
defined as the time from a stimulus coaches should focus on during train-
(visual awareness of the opponents ing sessions. Developing this increased
stroke/ball) until the production of power output at ground contact will
force (30). For over 100 years, the directly increase GRFs, translating to
accepted figures for simple reaction
times for college-aged individuals have
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org 81
Movement for Tennis: The Importance of Lateral Training
SUMMARY AND PRACTICAL Figure 7. Lateral mini hurdle runs (16).
APPLICATION
lower-body dynamic balance. An should be the transfer of GRF
Coaches and trainers need to under- advanced progression is to hold the through the core and up through
stand the patterns of movement, spec- catch position for 2 to 4 seconds the upper body to generate the
ificity, and reactive environment in followed by an explosive release of power into the MB throw.
which tennis occurs to develop training the MB as far as the athlete can Side lateral mini hurdle runs (Figure 7
programs that progress from a simple throw it. As a coach, the visual cue (16)): This is a lateral focused
closed skill environment to an open
skill environment using visual stimuli. Figure 8. Lateral resistive runs.
The demands of tennis movement are
vastly different from that of other
sports, and appropriate training pro-
grams should address the work to rest
ratios, distance, number of directional
changes, and types of movement. It is
important to incorporate all these
actions when structuring tennis move-
ment sessions. Several aspects of neural
development that should be under-
stood to aid the coach in the imple-
mentation of tennis-specific movement
training include the principles of im-
proving measurable neurological pa-
rameters and reaction time. Specific
speed training has been shown to
improve nerve NCV, maximal EMG,
and motor unit recruitment or H-
reflex. A rapid NCV is a representation
of a short refractory period that may
allow for greater impulse frequency,
resulting in an increased level of muscle
activation. Training (such as plyomet-
ric programs with a lateral focus)
accomplishes the goal of increasing
motor neuron excitability to improve
the speed and force of the muscle
contraction to improve movement.
Furthermore, tendon compliance has
been hypothesized to improve GRFs
and translate into more powerful
movements.
SAMPLE EXERCISE FOR TENNIS-
SPECIFIC LATERAL TRAINING
Lateral movement with medicine
ball catch: This exercise simulates
the lateral movement that tennis
players are required to make during
points (backhand sequence for a
right-handed player--Figure 6). The
addition of the visual stimulus of the
medicine ball (MB) being thrown to
them requires the athletes to de-
celerate while maintaining balance
to efficiently catch the MB while
maintaining a strong core region and
82 VOLUME 31 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2009
Figure 9. Lateral slide board. an athlete has appropriate strength muscles and movements required
and stability in a lateral direction to in lateral tennis movement--
plyometric movement that focuses gain benefit from added resistance especially when an athlete needs to
on the muscles of the lower body, without technique faltering (Figure 8). compete on a clay surface (Figure 9).
from a stretch-shortening perspec- This exercises works on the muscles The sliding motion simulates a sim-
tive, but also at the end of each set heavily involved in lateral move- ilar requirement during clay court
of 4 hurdles, the athlete needs to ments and requires the athlete to tennis movement. This drill can be
decelerate and come to a complete balance the upper body, while the enhanced by using a tennis ball as an
stop and hold the lower center of lower body is pushing against re- environmental cue, which the ath-
mass position for 2 seconds before sistance in a lateral direction. lete would need to catch while
reacceleration back into the exercise. Slide board: Using a slide board is sliding. This would increase the
Lateral resistive running: This is a great method to develop the tennis specificity of the exercise
a more advanced exercise that and includes the need to react to
should only be incorporated once stimulus (tennis ball) that is identical
to the stimulus on court.
T-line to S-line shuffle: This exercise
has the athlete start at the T-line (the
center of the court) while facing the
net and proceeds to side shuffle to
the S-line (singles line) and back to
the T-line (Figure 10). This covers
a typical distance that a tennis player
will have to move before changing
direction during matches. Once the
movement is understood, the coach
can then provide visual or auditory
stimulus to prompt the athlete to
perform either the crossover (Figure
2) or shuffle (Figure 3) step when
changing direction. This exercise can
also include greater difficulty and
more specificity to tennis play by
Figure 10. T-line to S-line.
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org 83
Movement for Tennis: The Importance of Lateral Training
Table 1
Example of a lateral tennis-specific training session
Reps Sets Recovery time between sets (s)
Lateral movement with MB catch 60
Forehand side 5 3 60
60
Backhand side 5 3 30
Side lateral mini hurdle runs 10 s 3
Slide board 20 s 3
T-line to S-line 2 5
Reps = repetitions; MB = medicine ball.
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