🎾 Introdution To Sport Cơ Sinh Học - Biomecanica - Deportiva¶
Giới Thiệu¶
Introdution To Sport Cơ Sinh Học - Biomecanica - Deportiva — tài liệu 315 trang từ thư viện sách tennis.
Chủ đề chính: Pattern, Biomechanic, Cơ sinh học
Tóm tắt nội dung (trích từ tài liệu gốc): Introduction to Sports Biomechanics Introduction to Sports Biomechanics: Analysing Human Movement Patterns provides a genuinely accessible and comprehensive guide to all of the biomechanics topics covered in an undergraduate sports and exercise science degree. Now revised and in its second edition, Introduction to Sports Biomechanics is colour illustrated and full of visual aids to support the text. Every chapter contains cross- references to key terms and definitions from that chapter, learning objectives and sum- maries, study tasks to confirm and extend your understanding, and suggestions t
Lưu ý: Nội dung dưới đây được trích xuất tự động từ PDF gốc tiếng Anh, giữ nguyên ngôn ngữ để bảo toàn độ chính xác kỹ thuật.
Nội Dung Gốc (Tiếng Anh)¶
Introduction to Sports Biomechanics
Introduction to Sports Biomechanics: Analysing Human Movement Patterns provides a
genuinely accessible and comprehensive guide to all of the biomechanics topics covered
in an undergraduate sports and exercise science degree.
Now revised and in its second edition, Introduction to Sports Biomechanics is colour
illustrated and full of visual aids to support the text. Every chapter contains cross-
references to key terms and definitions from that chapter, learning objectives and sum-
maries, study tasks to confirm and extend your understanding, and suggestions to
further your reading.
Highly structured and with many student-friendly features, the text covers:
� Movement Patterns � Exploring the Essence and Purpose of Movement Analysis
� Qualitative Analysis of Sports Movements
� Movement Patterns and the Geometry of Motion
� Quantitative Measurement and Analysis of Movement
� Forces and Torques � Causes of Movement
� The Human Body and the Anatomy of Movement
This edition of Introduction to Sports Biomechanics is supported by a website containing
video clips, and offers sample data tables for comparison and analysis and multiple-
choice questions to confirm your understanding of the material in each chapter.
This text is a must have for students of sport and exercise, human movement sciences,
ergonomics, biomechanics and sports performance and coaching.
Roger Bartlett is Professor of Sports Biomechanics in the School of Physical Education,
University of Otago, New Zealand. He is an Invited Fellow of the International Society
of Biomechanics in Sports and European College of Sports Sciences, and an Honorary
Fellow of the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences, of which he was
Chairman from 1991�4. Roger is currently Editor of the journal Sports Biomechanics.
Introduction to Sports
Biomechanics
Analysing Human Movement Patterns
Second edition
Roger Bartlett
First edition published 1997
This edition first published 2007
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2007.
"To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge's
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk."
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
� 1997, 2007 Roger Bartlett
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
A catalog record for this book has been requested
ISBN 0-203-46202-5 Master e-book ISBN
ISBN10: 0�415�33993�6 (hbk)
ISBN10: 0�415�33994�4 (pbk)
ISBN10: 0�203�46202�5 (ebk)
ISBN13: 978�0�415�33993�3 (hbk)
ISBN13: 978�0�415�33994�0 (pbk)
ISBN13: 978�0�203�46202�7 (ebk)
To the late James Hay, a source of great inspiration
Contents
List of figures x
List of tables xv
List of boxes xvi
Preface xvii
Introduction xix
1 Movement patterns � the essence of sports biomechanics 1
Introduction 1
Defining human movements 3
Some fundamental movements 8
Movement patterns 35
Comparison of qualitative and quantitative movement
analysis 36
Summary 40
Study tasks 40
Glossary of important terms 41
Further reading 42
2 Qualitative analysis of sports movements 43
Introduction 44
A structured analysis framework 44
Preparation stage � knowing what and how to observe 48
Observation stage � observing reliably 51
Evaluation and diagnosis stage � analysing what's right and wrong in a
movement 54
Intervention stage � providing appropriate feedback 56
Identifying critical features of a movement 59
Summary 72
Study tasks 73
Glossary of important terms 75
Further reading 76
Appendix 2.1 Universal and partially general movement
(biomechanical) principles 76
vii
CONTENTS
Appendix 2.2 Other examples of phase analysis of sports
movements 78
3 More on movement patterns � the geometry of motion 83
Introduction 83
Movement patterns revisited 84
Fundamentals of movement 87
Linear motion and the centre of mass 90
The geometry of angular motion 93
The coordination of joint rotations 96
Summary 109
Study tasks 109
Glossary of important terms 111
Further reading 112
Appendix 3.1 Further exploration of angle�time patterns 112
4 Quantitative analysis of movement 115
Introduction 116
The use of videography in recording sports movements 117
Recording the movement 120
Experimental procedures 126
Data processing 133
Projectile motion 139
Linear velocities and accelerations caused by rotation 146
Rotation in three-dimensional space 146
Summary 148
Study tasks 149
Glossary of important terms 151
Further reading 152
Appendix 4.1 Data smoothing and filtering 153
Appendix 4.2 Basic vector algebra 157
5 Causes of movement � forces and torques 163
Introduction 164
Forces in sport 164
Combinations of forces on the sports performer 180
Momentum and the laws of linear motion 183
Force�time graphs as movement patterns 186
Determination of the centre of mass of the human body 189
Fundamentals of angular kinetics 191
Generation and control of angular momentum 195
Measurement of force 201
Measurement of pressure 213
Summary 215
viii
Study tasks 216 CONTENTS
Glossary of important terms 218
Further reading 222 223
6 The anatomy of human movement 281
Introduction 224
The body's movements 225
The skeleton and its bones 232
The joints of the body 237
Muscles � the powerhouse of movement 241
Electromyography � what muscles do 258
Experimental procedures in electromyography 265
EMG data processing 268
Isokinetic dynamometry 273
Summary 276
Study tasks 276
Glossary of important terms 278
Further reading 280
Index
ix
Figures
1.1 Cardinal planes and axes of movement 4
1.2 Reference postures 5
1.3 Movement of the forearm about the elbow joint in the sagittal plane 6
1.4 Abduction and adduction of the arm about the shoulder joint and the
thigh about the hip joint 7
1.5 Medial and lateral rotation of the arm about the shoulder joint 7
1.6 Horizontal flexion and extension of the abducted arm about the
shoulder joint 8
1.7 Young female walking overground at her preferred speed in trainers 10
1.8 Same young female as in Figure 1.7 walking on a level treadmill at her
preferred speed in trainers 11
1.9 Older male walking on a level treadmill at his preferred speed in
bowling shoes 12
1.10 Another young female walking on a level treadmill at her preferred
speed in high-heeled shoes 13
1.11 Young male walking on a 20% inclined treadmill at his preferred speed
in work shoes 14
1.12 Three-year-old boy walking overground 15
1.13 Young female running at her preferred speed in trainers 16
1.14 Another young female running at her preferred speed in dress shoes 17
1.15 Young male running at his preferred speed in casual shoes 18
1.16 Older male running at his preferred speed in normal trainers 19
1.17 Older male running at his preferred speed in MBT trainers 20
1.18 Three-year-old boy running at his preferred speed 21
1.19 Young male sprinting in spikes 22
1.20 Standing countermovement vertical jump with hands on hips 23
1.21 Standing countermovement vertical jump with normal arm action 24
1.22 Standing countermovement vertical jump with `model' arm action 25
1.23 Standing countermovement vertical jump with abnormal arm action 26
1.24 Standing countermovement broad, or long, jump with hands on hips 27
1.25 Standing countermovement broad, or long, jump with normal arm
action 28
x
FIGURES
1.26 Underarm throw � female bowling a `drive' 29
1.27 Underarm throw � female bowling a `draw' 30
1.28 Underarm throw � young male bowling a `draw' 31
1.29 Sidearm throw � the hammer throw 32
1.30 Overarm throw � javelin throw 33
1.31 Overarm throw � bowling in cricket 34
2.1 Simplified logical decision tree approach to qualitative classification of
fast bowling technique 45
2.2 `Principles' approach to qualitative analysis 46
2.3 Levels 1 and 2 of long jump deterministic model 62
2.4 Explanation of division of distance jumped into three components 63
2.5 Level 3 of long jump model � factors affecting flight distance 63
2.6 Level 4 of long jump model � factors affecting take-off speed 64
2.7 Level 4 of long jump model � factors affecting take-off speed � avoiding
the blind alley 65
2.8 Take-off velocity components 65
2.9 Revised long jump model for flight distance 66
2.10 Factors affecting take-off horizontal velocity 66
2.11 Factors affecting take-off vertical velocity 67
2.12 Final model for take-off vertical and horizontal velocities 67
2.13 Identifying critical features that maximise force generation and vertical
and horizontal acceleration paths 68
2.14 Identifying critical features that affect take-off distance 70
2.15 Identifying critical features that affect landing distance 70
3.1 Stick figure sequences of skier 85
3.2 Solid body model of cricket fast bowler 86
3.3 Curvilinear motion 87
3.4 Angular motion 88
3.5 General motion 89
3.6 Hypothetical horizontal displacement of the centre of mass with time
for a novice sprinter 90
3.7 Positive (valley-type) curvature and negative (hill-type) curvature 91
3.8 Hypothetical centre of mass displacement, velocity and acceleration
variation with % race time for a novice sprinter 92
3.9 Variation of knee angle with time in treadmill running 94
3.10 Variation of knee angle, angular velocity and angular acceleration with
time in treadmill running 95
3.11 Hip, knee and ankle angle�time series for three strides of treadmill
locomotion 97
3.12 Basic types of coordination 98
3.13 Angle�angle diagrams for one `ideal' running stride 99
3.14 Angle�angle diagrams for three strides in treadmill running 100
3.15 Angle�angle diagrams for one walking stride 101
3.16 Angle�angle diagram with time `points' 102
xi
FIGURES
3.17 Phase planes for one running stride 104
3.18 Superimposed phase planes for the hip and knee joints in one running
stride 105
3.19 Continuous relative phase for hip�knee angle coupling for one running
stride, derived from Figure 3.18 105
3.20 Hip and knee phase planes for one stride of walking 106
3.21 Partitioning of variance 108
3.22 Variation of knee angle with time in treadmill running; further
explanation of angle�time patterns 113
4.1 Computer visualisation 119
4.2 Modern digital video camera 121
4.3 Errors from viewing movements away from the photographic plane and
optical axis of the camera 124
4.4 A typical calibration object for three-dimensional videography 125
4.5 Possible camera placements for movement such as long jump 129
4.6 Aliasing 129
4.7 Three-dimensional DLT camera set-up 132
4.8 Simple example of noise-free data 135
4.9 Residual analysis of filtered data 137
4.10 Simple measurement of segment volume 138
4.11 The right-hand rule 141
4.12 Projection parameters 143
4.13 Effect of projection angle on shape of parabolic trajectory 144
4.14 Tangential velocity and tangential and centripetal acceleration
components for a gymnast rotating about a bar 147
4.15 Angular orientation showing angles of somersault, tilt and twist 148
4.16 Low-pass filter frequency characteristics 153
4.17 Displacement data 154
4.18 Simple example of noisy data 155
4.19 Over-smoothing and under-smoothing 156
4.20 Vector representation 158
4.21 Vector addition 159
4.22 Vector resolution 160
4.23 Vector addition using components 161
4.24 Vector cross-product 162
5.1 Directional quality of force 165
5.2 Vertical component of ground reaction force in a standing vertical jump
with no arm action 166
5.3 Ground reaction force and its components 167
5.4 Training shoe on an inclined plane and its free body diagram 168
5.5 Unweighting 169
5.6 Buoyancy force 171
5.7 Separation points on a smooth ball 174
5.8 Generation of lift 178
xii
FIGURES
5.9 Typical path of a swimmer's hand relative to the water 179
5.10 Forces on a runner 181
5.11 Levers as examples of parallel force systems 183
5.12 Standing vertical jump time series 187
5.13 Determination of whole body centre of mass 190
5.14 Action and reaction 193
5.15 Angular momentum 194
5.16 Generation of rotation 196
5.17 Generation of rotation 197
5.18 Instantaneous centre of rotation and centre of percussion 198
5.19 Trading of angular momentum between axes of rotation 200
5.20 Ground contact force and moment (or torque) components that act on
the sports performer 202
5.21 Force plate characteristics 204
5.22 Representation of force input and recorded output signals as a function
of time 206
5.23 Steady-state frequency response characteristics of a typical second-order
force plate system 207
5.24 Transient response characteristics of a typical second-order force plate
system 208
5.25 Force plate variables as functions of time for a standing broad jump 211
5.26 Force vectors for a standing broad jump and centre of pressure path
from above 212
5.27 A plantar pressure insole system � Pedar 214
5.28 Pedar insole data displays 216
6.1 Movements in the frontal plane about the sagittal axis 227
6.2 Movements of the thumb 228
6.3 Shoulder girdle movements 230
6.4 Pelvic girdle movements 231
6.5 The skeleton 233
6.6 Surface features of bones 236
6.7 Classification of synovial joints 239
6.8 Main skeletal muscles 242
6.9 Structural classification of muscles 245
6.10 Simple schematic model of skeletal muscle 247
6.11 Muscle responses 249
6.12 Length�tension relationship for whole muscle contraction 251
6.13 Force�velocity relationship 252
6.14 Tension�time relationship 253
6.15 Force potentiation in the stretch�shortening cycle in vertical jumps 254
6.16 Three-dimensional muscle force components 255
6.17 Two-dimensional muscle force components 257
6.18 Schematic representation of the generation of the EMG signal 258
6.19 Bipolar configurations of surface electrodes 261
xiii
FIGURES
6.20 Effect of high-pass filter on cable artifacts 262
6.21 EMG signals without mains hum 264
6.22 Electrode locations based on SENIAM recommendations 267
6.23 Time domain processing of EMG 269
6.24 Idealised EMG power spectrum 272
6.25 EMG power spectra at the start and the end of a sustained, constant
force contraction 272
6.26 Use of an isokinetic dynamometer 274
xiv
Tables
2.1 Examples of slowest satisfactory shutter speeds for various activities 53
4.1 Kinematic vectors and scalars 140
5.1 Calculation of the two-dimensional position of the whole body centre
of mass; cadaver data adjusted to correct for fluid loss 221
xv
Boxes
1.1 Learning outcomes 2
1.2 Planes and axes of movement and postures from which movements are
defined 3
1.3 Main movements in other planes 6
2.1 Learning outcomes 44
2.2 Stages in a structured approach to analysis of human movement in
sport 47
2.3 Summary of universal and partially general movement principles 60
2.4 Least useful movement principles (in my experience) 60
3.1 Learning outcomes 84
3.2 A cautionary tale of unreliable data 107
4.1 Learning outcomes 116
4.2 Two-dimensional or three-dimensional analysis? 122
4.3 Those things called vectors and scalars 140
5.1 Learning outcomes 164
5.2 Newton's laws of linear motion 184
5.3 Laws of angular motion 192
5.4 Why measure force or pressure? 201
5.5 Guideline values for force plate characteristics 208
6.1 Learning outcomes 224
6.2 Location of main joint sagittal axes of rotation and joint centres of
rotation 237
6.3 A schematic model of skeletal muscle 247
6.4 Intrinsic factors that influence the EMG 259
6.5 Some electrode placements (adapted from SENIAM) 266
xvi
Preface
Why have I changed the cover name for this book from that of the first edition? Because
after teaching, researching and consulting in sports biomechanics for over 30 years, my
definition of sports biomechanics has become simply, `the study and analysis of human
movement patterns in sport'. This is a marked change from the first edition, the
introduction to which began with the sentence: `Sports biomechanics uses the scientific
methods of mechanics to study the effects of various forces on the sports performer'.
The change in focus � and structure and contents � of this book reflects an important
change in sports biomechanics over the last decade. Most sports biomechanics text-
books, including the first edition of this one, have strongly reflected the mathematical,
engineering or physics backgrounds of their authors and their predominant research
culture. Hence, the mechanical focus that is evident, particularly in earlier texts, as well
as a strong emphasis on quantitative analysis in sports biomechanics. In this early part
of the third millennium, more students who graduate with a degree focused on sports
biomechanics will go on to work as a movement analyst or performance analyst with
sports organisations and client groups in exercise and health than will enrol for a
research degree. The requirements on them will be to undertake mostly qualitative,
rather than quantitative, analysis of movement. Indeed, I will often use the term
`movement analyst' instead of `sports biomechanist' to reflect this shift from quantita-
tive to qualitative analysis, and to broaden the term somewhat, as will be apparent later.
So, qualitative analysis is the main focus of the first three chapters of this new
edition; however everything in these chapters is also relevant for quantitative movement
analysts � you cannot be a good quantitative movement analyst without first being a
good qualitative analyst. The last three chapters focus on quantitative analysis. Even
here, there are notable changes from the first edition. First, I have removed sections
that dealt with sports objects rather than the sports performer. This reflects the
growth of sports engineering as the discipline that deals with the design and function of
sports equipment and sports objects. Secondly, rather than the structure of the first
edition � four chapters on fundamentals and four on measurement techniques � the
measurement sections are now incorporated within Chapters 4 to 6 (and touched on
in Chapter 2) and are covered only in the detail needed for undergraduate students.
More advanced students wishing to probe deeper into measurement techniques and
data processing will find the new text edited by Carl Payton and myself a source of more
xvii
PREFACE
detailed information (Biomechanical Evaluation of Movement in Sport and Exercise,
Routledge, 2007).
So what do sports biomechanists � or movement analysts � do? We study and analyse
human movement patterns in sport to help people perform their chosen sporting
activity better and to reduce the risk of injury. We also do it because it is so fascinating.
Yes, it is fascinating, otherwise so many of my generation would not still be doing
it. And it is intellectually challenging and personally gratifying � if you can contribute
to reducing an athlete's injury risk or to improving his or her performance, it gives you a
warm glow. Sounds exciting, doesn't it? Indeed it is � a wealth of fascination. So, let us
begin our journey.
This edition is intended to be more reader-friendly than the first. Each chapter starts
with an outline of learning outcomes, and knowledge assumed, which is cross-
referenced mostly to other parts of the book. At the end of each chapter, a summary is
provided of what was covered and eight study tasks are listed. Hints are given about how
to go about each task, including referring to video clips, data tables and other material
available on the book's website, which is, in itself, another important pedagogical
resource. The website also includes PowerPoint slides for lecturers to use as a basis for
their lectures, and multiple choice questions for students to self-test their learning
progress. Further reading material is also recommended at the end of each chapter.
The production of any textbook relies on the cooperation of many people other than
the author. I should like to acknowledge the invaluable, carefully considered comments
of Dr Melanie Bussey on all the chapters of the book and, particularly, her glossaries
of important terms in each chapter. All those who acted as models for the photographic
illustrations are gratefully acknowledged: former colleagues of mine at Manchester
Metropolitan University in the UK � Drs Vicky Goosey, Mike Lauder and Keith
Tolfrey � and colleagues and students at the University of Otago in New Zealand � Dr
Melanie Bussey, Neil Davis, Nick Flyger, Peter Lamb, Jo Trezise and Nigel Barrett � and
Nigel's son Bradley; I thank Chris Sullivan for his help with some of the illustrations. I
am also grateful to Raylene Bates for the photo sequence of javelin throwing, to Harold
Connolly for the hammer throwing sequence, to Warren Frost for the one of bowling in
cricket, and to Clara Soper for those of lawn bowling. I should not need to add that any
errors in the book are entirely my responsibility.
Roger Bartlett, Dunedin, New Zealand
xviii
Introduction MISSING TEXT
The first three chapters of this book focus mainly on qualitative analysis of sports
movements. Chapter 1 starts by outlining a novel approach to sports biomechanics and
establishing that our focus in this chapter is the qualitative analysis of human move-
ment patterns in sport. I will define movements in the sagittal plane and touch on those
in the frontal and horizontal planes. We will then consider the constraints-led approach
to studying human movements, and go on to look at examples of walking, running,
jumping and throwing, including the subdivision of these fundamental movements
into phases. In these movements, we will compare movement patterns between
ages, sexes, footwear, inclines and tasks. The chapter concludes with a comparison of
qualitative and quantitative analysis, looking at their background, uses, and strengths
and weaknesses.
Chapter 2 considers how qualitative biomechanical analysis of movement is part of a
multidisciplinary approach to movement analysis. We will look at several structured
approaches to qualitative analysis of movement, all of which have, at their core, the
identification of critical features of the movement studied. We will identify four stages
in a structured approach to movement analysis, consider the main aspects of each stage
and note that the value of each stage depends on how well the previous stages have been
implemented. We will see that the most crucial step in the whole approach is how to
identify the critical features of a movement, and we will look at several ways of
doing this, none of which is foolproof. We will work through a detailed example of the
best approach, using deterministic models, and consider the `movement principles'
approach and the role of phase analysis of movement.
Chapter 3 covers the principles of kinematics � the geometry of movement � which
are important for the study of movement in sport and exercise. Our focus will be very
strongly on movement patterns and their qualitative interpretation. Several other forms
of movement pattern will be introduced, explained and explored � including stick
figures, time-series graphs, angle�angle diagrams and phase planes. We will consider the
types of motion and the model appropriate to each. The importance of being able to
interpret graphical patterns of linear or angular displacement and to infer from these the
geometry of the velocity and acceleration patterns will be stressed. We will look at two
ways of assessing joint coordination using angle�angle diagrams and, through phase
planes, relative phase, and we will briefly touch on the strengths and weaknesses of these
xix
---
[Cuối tài liệu]
INDEX
skin 124, 127 movement principles 45�7
tracking systems 118, 122 identifying critical features 59�72
mass 183 least useful 60
maximising the acceleration path 78 partially general 47, 60, 77�8
maximum torque 275 specific 47, 60
maximum torque position 275 universal 47, 60, 76�7
maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) 268,
movements
269, 279 anatomy 225�31
means analysis 56 causes of 163�222
medial malleolus 235, 236 critical features see critical features
medial (internal) rotation 6, 7, 227 fundamental 8�35
mediolateral plane see frontal plane fundamentals of 87�9
metacarpophalangeal joints 239, 240 pathological 41
minimisation of energy used 76 scientific terminology 3�4
minimisation of inertia 77, 194
minimum task complexity, principle of movement variability 9, 107�9, 111
movers 246
77 multi-joint muscles 247
models, optimal performance 57 multipennate muscles 245
moment, free 212 multi-segmental model 89
moment of a force 196 muscle(s) 241�56
moment of ground contact force 210�12
moments of inertia 191�2 activation 243
momentum 184 angle of pull 255�7
contractile component 247�8
law of 192 elastic elements 247�8
Newton's law 184, 185 electromyography 258�71
motion analysis systems 118, 122 fascicles 241, 244
motion recording see recording, motion; fatigue 249, 250�1, 271�2
force components 255�7
videography force�velocity relationship 252
motor action potential (MAP) 258 group action 246�7
motor car racing 170�1, 175, 176 indeterminacy 264
motor cycle racing 175, 176 naming 243�4
motor end-plate 243, 279 origin and insertion 241
motor unit 243, 279 pre-stretch 76, 250
redundancy 264
recruitment 243, 250 schematic model 247�8
stimulation rate 243, 250 shunt 256
summation, multiple 249�50 spurt 256
motor unit action potential (MUAP) 258 stiffness 253
motor unit action potential train (MUAPT) stretch�shortening cycle 75, 76, 254, 255
structural classification 244�5
258 structure 241�3
mountain climbing 170, 171 twitch 248�9
movement analysis muscle contraction
maximum voluntary (MVC) 268, 269, 279
constraints-led approach 8�9, 50, 71�2 mechanics 248�50
data reliability issues 107�9 multiple motor unit summation 249�50
qualitative see qualitative movement analysis time 248, 249, 252
qualitative vs. quantitative 36�40 types 246
quantitative 36�7, 39�40 wave summation 249
rationale 1�2 muscle fibres 241�3
semi-quantitative 37 types 250�1
movement errors, diagnosing 55�6
movement patterns 35�6, 84�6
variability over time 107�9
movement plane 123, 127
287
INDEX muscle length�tension relationship 251 ideal (model) 59
muscle tension models of optimal 57
288 parameters or variables 61, 119
development 248, 249, 250�2 performance criterion 61, 62
EMG and 264 objective 61
muscle tension�time relationship 252, 253 subjective 61, 72
muscle torque 273 perimysium 241, 243, 248
maximum 275 periosteum 234
measurement 273�5 peroneus longus muscle 256�7
position, maximum 275 perspective error 123�4
muscular endurance under isokinetic conditions phase analysis 9, 61, 78�82
ballistic movements 78�80
275�6 long jump 62, 63
musculoskeletal system, human 225 more complex movements 81�2
myofibrils 241 running 80�1
phase angle 103, 111
natural frequency, force plate 207, 208�9, 210 phase planes 86, 103�6, 111, 119
needs analysis 49, 50�1, 56 phase plot 111
neuromuscular junction 243, 279 photographic plane 123
neutralisers 247 piezoelectric 220
New Studies in Athletics 50 pilot protocols 51
Newton 165 pivot joints 239
Newton's first law 184 pixels 121
Newton's law of friction 167 planar motion 93
Newton's laws of linear motion 184 plane joints 238�9
Newton's second law 181, 184, 185 planes of movement 3�4, 41, 225
Newton's third law 166, 184 plantar flexion 5, 225�6
noise (random errors) 126, 133�4 plasticity 279
point model 87�8
removal 134�7, 153�7 points of inflexion 112, 114
sources 124 stationary 114
normal force 166 polarisation 280
normal stress 279 position�time graph 90�2
nutation 201 POSSUM 45, 46
Nyquist sampling theorem 128, 203 posterior tilt, shoulder girdle 229
postures, reference 4, 5, 225
objectivity 54, 55, 107�9 power, whole body 211, 213
opposition, thumb 229 power spectrum 280
optical axis, camera 124, 127 pressure
organismic constraints 72 centre of see centre of pressure
osteoblasts 234, 235 measurement 201, 213�15, 216
osteoclasts 235 pressure drag 175�6
osteocytes 232 pressure plates/pads/insoles 213�14
pre-stretch 76, 250
panning, camera 133 prime movers 246
parallax error 123�4 principles, movement see movement principles
partition ratio 256 projectile 75
patella 234, 257 projectile motion 139�45
path line 172 drag forces 175�6
pectoralis major muscle 244 optimum projection conditions 145
pelvic girdle 279 projection parameters 142�4
projection angle 75, 143, 144, 145
movements 229�32
pennate (penniform) muscles 245
performance
evaluation 54�5
projection height 75, 144 INDEX
projection speed 142
projection velocity 75, 143 radio-ulnar joint, proximal 239
pronation random errors see noise
range 75
foot 226, 227 reaction, law of 193�4
forearm 227 reaction forces 166, 167
pronator quadratus muscle 244 reciprocal muscle group ratio 275
protraction, shoulder girdle 229 recording, motion 118
proximal radio-ulnar joint 239
pulleys problems and sources of errors 107�9, 123�6
anatomical 256�7 see also videography; video recordings
friction 171 rectification, full wave 268, 269
rectilinear motion 87
quadrate muscles 244, 245 rectus abdominis muscle 244
qualitative movement analysis 2�3, 36�7, rectus femoris muscle 245
EMG 266, 267
43�82 redundant 75
background to 38 reference postures (positions) 4, 5, 225
deterministic modelling approach 47 reference system 41
evaluation and diagnosis stage 48, 54�6 reflex 280
force�time patterns 186�8 relative phase, continuous 103�4, 105
identifying critical features 59�72 reliability 41, 54, 55
intervention stage 48, 56�8 problems with 107�9
observation stage 47�8, 51�4 research, scientific 50
preparation stage 47, 48�51 residual analysis 136, 137
principles approach 45�7 resistance 280
strengths and weaknesses 39 resolution, image 121
structured framework 44�8 retraction, shoulder girdle 229
supplements 84�6 Reynolds number 172, 173, 175, 179
vs. quantitative analysis 38 rhomboideus major muscle 244
quantitative movement analysis 37�8, 39�40, right-hand rule 141
rigid bodies 112
115�62 angular momentum 194�5, 197�9
calculating forces and torques 119�20 centre of percussion 198�9
data processing 133�9 rotation 88�9, 93
experimental procedures 126�33 RMS see root mean square
force�time patterns 188 rock climbing 170, 171
linear velocities and accelerations caused by rolling friction 168
root mean square (RMS)
rotation 146 differences 133, 136
measures used 118�19 EMG 270
methods used 117�20 rotation (angular motion) 88�9
projectile motion 139�45 coordination of joint 96�103
recording methods 118 external (lateral) see lateral rotation
recording movements 120�33 generation and control 195�201
rotation in three-dimensional space 146�7 geometry 93�6
three-dimensional see three-dimensional internal (medial) see medial rotation
kinetics 191�5
quantitative analysis laws 192�4
two-dimensional see two-dimensional to left and right 227
linear velocities and accelerations caused by
quantitative analysis
vs. qualitative analysis 38 146, 147
quasi-rigid bodies 89, 93 pelvis 231, 232
quintic splines 136, 156, 157 scapula 229, 230
radial flexion (deviation) 226
289
INDEX three-dimensional 146�7, 148, 201 short bones 234
see also angular momentum shot putting 30, 35, 145
290 rotational friction 168 shoulder girdle, movements 229, 230
rowing 177 shoulder joint 229, 237, 240
rugby spiral pass 31 shunt muscles 256
running 15�23 shutter speeds 52�3, 120
angle�angle diagrams 98�100, 102 signal amplitude 220
drag forces 175 signal frequency 220
force systems 180, 181 siliconCOACH 8, 58, 90
image sequences 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, SIMI 122
single-individual designs 117
22 skating 141, 169, 199
phase analysis 80�1 skeleton 232�7
phase planes 103�4, 105, 106 skiing
recovery (swing) phase 16, 17, 80
starting and stopping 170 drag forces 175, 176
support (stance) phase 16�17, 80 friction 168, 169, 170
using starting blocks 170, 185 ski jumping 61, 145, 176
skin
saddle joints 239, 240 friction drag 176
sagittal axis 4 markers 124, 127
preparation, EMG electrodes 265
joint rotation 237 resistance 265
movements about 226, 227 skittles 31
sagittal plane 3, 4 sky-diving 145
movements 225�6 sliding 170
sails 177, 178 slope 112
sampling rate (frequency) slow-motion 120
digital video cameras 52�3, 121 soccer 35, 179
force places 203 softball 31
two-dimensional videography 127�8, 129 solid body models 86, 119
sarcolemma 241, 248 spatial 41
sarcoplasm 241 spectral estimation, EMG 271�2
sartorius muscle 244 speed boats 176
scalars 140�1 spikes 168, 170
scales, length 127 spline smoothing 134�6, 156, 157
scapula Sport and Exercise Scientist 49
acromion process 233, 235 Sports Biomechanics 50
movements 229, 230 sports biomechanics, defined 1
segmentation method, whole body centre of spray-making drag 176
spurt muscles 256
mass 189�91, 221 stabilisers 247
segments, body see body segments stability 78
semi-quantitative movement analysis 37 starting 170
SENIAM 260 starting blocks 170, 185
sequential movement (action of muscles) 75, static friction 167�8
statics 152, 180�1, 183
77 stationary points 112, 114
serial organisation 77 steady-state response 220
sesamoid bones 234 stick figures 85, 86, 119
shear force 220 stopping 170
shear stress 280 streamline 172
shoes, sports streamlining 175
friction forces 167, 168
materials 170, 171
pressure insoles 213�14
stress 220 INDEX
stretch�shortening cycle 75, 76, 254, 255
studs 168, 170 throwing 28�35
styloid processes 235, 236 overarm 33�5
summation of internal forces 77 sidearm 32�3
supination underarm 29, 30, 31
foot 226, 227 thumb
forearm 227 carpometacarpal joint 239, 240
suprasternal notch 233, 235 movements 227�9
surfaces, sports
friction 170�1 tibialis posterior muscle 245
impact forces 180 time domain analysis 280
surfing 176
swimming EMG signal 268�71
buoyancy force 171�2 time series 86, 90�2, 93, 102�3, 112,
drag forces 175, 176
front crawl see front crawl swimming 118
lift forces 177 time synchronisation 127, 130�1
videography 127 timing devices 131
Swimming World Magazine 49 topological equivalence 102, 106
synergists, helping and true 247 topspin 178�9
synovial fluid 169, 238 torque 75, 164�5, 196
synovial joints 238�40
synovial membrane 169, 238 calculating 119�20
systematic errors 126 frictional 212
muscle see muscle torque
table tennis ball 175, 179 track surfaces 170
take number 128 traction 167, 168
tangent (line) 112, 220 increasing 170
tangential velocity 220 reducing 168�9
task (biomechanical) constraints 72 starting, stopping and turning 170
telemetry 280 trajectory 75
temporal processing, EMG signal 268�71 trampolining 200, 201
tendons 243, 248 transducers, force 202, 203, 213
tennis transient response 220
translation 88
serve 78�80, 127�8 transverse plane see horizontal plane
sliding during turns 170 trapezius muscle 244
tennis ball 179, 180 treppe 250
tennis racket 199 triceps brachii muscle, EMG 266, 267
tenpin bowling 31 triple jump, videography 127, 129
tetanus 249, 280 tuberosities (tubercles) 235
three-dimensional, defined 152 turbulent flow 173, 174, 220
three-dimensional quantitative analysis turning 170
calibration points 125, 131�3 turning points 112, 113
hidden line removal 119 twist, airborne 200
manual coordinate digitisation 122 two-dimensional, defined 152
problems and sources of error 125�6 two-dimensional motion 93
reconstruction algorithms 131�3 two-dimensional quantitative analysis
recording procedures 130�3 problems and sources of error 123�4
vs two-dimensional 122�3 recording procedures 126�30
three-dimensional rotation 146�7, 148, vs three-dimensional 122�3
tyres 170�1
201
ulnar flexion (deviation) 226
unipennate muscles 245
unreliable data 107�9
unweighting 169, 170
291
INDEX
validity 220 video recordings (clips)
vantage points 53 book's website 8
variability 112 qualitative analysis 35�6
still images from 8, 35�6
sources of 107�9
see also movement variability viscoelastic 248, 280
vectors 140�1, 157�62, 164 viscosity 172, 220
addition and subtraction 158�61 volleyball
composition 158
multiplication 162 floating serve 180
velocity 91�2, 118 spike 81
velocity�time graph 187, 188 vertical jumping 186�8
vertical axis 4
movements about 227 wake 173, 174, 220
Vicon? 122 wake (pressure) drag 175�6
video cameras walking 9�13
analog 118, 120
digital see digital video cameras angle�angle diagrams 101, 102
videography image sequences 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15
defined 152 phase planes 106
force plate studies 209 phases 9
number of trials/performances 53 water flow 173
problems and sources of error 107�9, water sports 176
wave drag 176
123�6 wave summation 249
for qualitative analysis 51�4 weight 165�6
for quantitative analysis 116, 118, weighting 169�70
windsurfing 176
120�33 work�energy relationship 64�5, 78
three-dimensional recording 130�3 wrist 237
two-dimensional recording 126�30
two- vs three-dimensional 122�3 yachts, racing 176, 177, 178
292