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Tóm tắt nội dung (trích từ tài liệu gốc): Biomechanical Basis of Human Movement THIRD EDITION Biomechanical Basis of Human Movement THIRD EDITION Joseph Hamill, PhD Kathleen M. Knutzen, PhD Professor Professor Department of Exercise Science Department of Physical Education, University of Massachusetts at Health, and Recreation Amherst Amherst, Massachusetts Western Washington University Bellingham, Washington Acquisitions Editor: Emily Lupash Managing Editor: Andrea M. Klingler Marketing Manager: Missi Carmen Production Editor: Eve Malakoff-Klein Designer: Terry Mallon Compositor: International Typesetting and Composition Third Editio
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Biomechanical Basis
of Human Movement
THIRD EDITION
Biomechanical
Basis
of Human
Movement
THIRD EDITION
Joseph Hamill, PhD Kathleen M. Knutzen, PhD
Professor Professor
Department of Exercise Science Department of Physical Education,
University of Massachusetts at Health, and Recreation
Amherst Amherst, Massachusetts Western Washington University
Bellingham, Washington
Acquisitions Editor: Emily Lupash
Managing Editor: Andrea M. Klingler
Marketing Manager: Missi Carmen
Production Editor: Eve Malakoff-Klein
Designer: Terry Mallon
Compositor: International Typesetting and Composition
Third Edition
Copyright � 2009, 2003, 1995 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, a Wolters Kluwer business.
351 West Camden Street 530 Walnut Street
Baltimore, MD 21201 Philadelphia, PA 19106
Printed in the Peoples Republic of China
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9 87654321
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Hamill, Joseph, 1946-
Biomechanical basis of human movement / Joseph Hamill, Kathleen M. Knutzen.--3rd ed.
p. ; cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-7817-9128-1
ISBN-10: 0-7817-9128-6
1. Human mechanics. I. Knutzen, Kathleen. II. Title.
[DNLM: 1. Movement. 2. Biomechanics. WE 103 H217b
2009] QP303.H354 2009
612.7 6--dc22
2007027343
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Preface
Biomechanics is a quantitative field of study within the Part II, Functional Anatomy, includes Chapters 5
discipline of exercise science. This book is intended through 7 and discusses specific regions of the body: the
as an introductory textbook that stresses this quantitative upper extremity, lower extremity, and trunk, respectively.
(rather than qualitative) nature of biomechanics. It is Each chapter integrates the general information pre-
hoped that, while stressing the quantification of human sented in Part I relative to each region. In this edition,
movement, this third edition of Biomechanical Basis of the information on muscles and ligaments was moved
Human Movement will also acknowledge those with a from the appendix into the chapter text to facilitate
limited background in mathematics. The quantitative review of muscle and ligament locations and actions. The
examples are presented in a detailed, logical manner that exercise section was reorganized to provide samples of
highlight topics of interest. The goal of this book, there- common exercises used for each region. Finally, the
fore, is to provide an introductory text in biomechanics analysis of selected activities at the end of each chapter
that integrates basic anatomy, physics, calculus, and includes a more comprehensive muscular analysis based
physiology for the study of human movement. We on the results of electromyographic studies.
decided to use this approach because numerical examples
are meaningful and easily clear up misconceptions con- Part III, Mechanical Analysis of Human Motion,
cerning the mechanics of human movement. includes Chapters 8 through 11, in which quantitative
mechanical techniques for the analyses of human move-
ORGANIZATION ment are presented. Chapter 8 and 9 present the concepts
of linear and angular kinematics. Conventions for the
This book is organized into three major sections: Part I: study of linear and angular motion in the analysis of
Foundations of Human Movement; Part II: Functional human movement are also detailed in these two chapters.
Anatomy; and Part III: Mechanical Analysis of Human A portion of each chapter is devoted to a review of the
Motion. The chapters are ordered to provide a logical research literature on human locomotion, wheelchair
progression of material essential toward the understand- locomotion, and golf. These activities are used through-
ing of biomechanics and the study of human movement. out Part III to illustrate the quantitative techniques pre-
sented. Chapters 10 and 11 present the concepts of linear
Part I, Foundations of Human Movement, includes and angular kinetics, including discussions on the forces
Chapters 1 through 4. Chapter 1 "Basic Movement and torques that act on the human body during daily
Terminology," presents the terminology and nomencla- activities. The laws of motion are provided and explained.
ture generally used in biomechanics. Chapter 2, "Skeletal Included here is a discussion of the forces and torques
Considerations for Movement," covers the skeletal sys- applied to the segments of the body during motion.
tem with particular emphasis on joint articulation.
Chapter 3, "Muscular Considerations for Movement," Although the book follows a progressive order, the
discusses the organization of the muscular system. Finally, major sections are generally self-contained. Therefore,
in Chapter 4, "Neurological Considerations For instructors may delete or deemphasize certain sections.
Movement," the control and activation systems for Parts I and II, for example, could be used in a traditional
human movement are presented. In this edition, some of kinesiology course, and Part III could be used for a bio-
the foundation material was reorganized and new mate- mechanics course.
rial was added in areas such as physical activity and bone
formation, osteoarthritis, osteoporosis, factors influenc- FEATURES
ing force and velocity development in the muscles, and
the effect of training on muscle activation. Each chapter contains a list of Chapter Objectives to
enable the student to focus on key points in the material,
vii
viii PREFACE
and Chapter Outlines provide a guide to the content dis- four appendices present information on units of measure-
cussed. Boxes are included throughout to highlight ment, trigonometric functions, and hands-on data.
important material, and relevant Questions are pulled out
to help the student briefly review a concept. Chapter Illustrations of the principles of human movement are
Summaries at the end of each chapter recap the major easily seen in most sports examples, but in this edition of
concepts presented. Each chapter contains Review Biomechanical Basis of Human Movement, new and
Questions, both true/false and multiple choice, to chal- updated illustrations include applications from ergonom-
lenge students and help them digest and integrate the ics, orthopedics, and exercise. These are supplemented
material presented. A Glossary is presented at each chap- with references from the current biomechanics literature.
ter's end, defining terms found in each chapter and to be With these and the content and features mentioned above,
used as a source of reinforcement and reference. Finally, the full continuum of human movement potential is
considered.
Acknowledgements
To those who reviewed this edition of the book and who made a substantial contri-
bution to its development, we express our sincere appreciation. We also thank Andrea
Klingler (managing editor), Karen Ruppert (managing editor), Emily Lupash (acqui-
sitions editor), and Christen Murphy (marketing manager) of Wolters Kluwer
Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins for their expertise throughout the publishing
process. A special thanks to Nic Castona and Nike, Inc., for the photography used
throughout.
ix
Contents vii
ix
Preface
Acknowledgements 1
SECTION I 3
Foundations of Human Movement 27
63
1 Basic Terminology 105
2 Skeletal Considerations for Movement
3 Muscular Considerations for Movement 137
4 Neurological Considerations for Movement
139
S E C T I O N II 187
Functional Anatomy 259
5 Functional Anatomy of the Upper Extremity 299
6 Functional Anatomy of the Lower Extremity
7 Functional Anatomy of the Trunk 301
337
S E C T I O N III 367
Mechanical Analysis of Human Motion 411
8 Linear Kinematics 463
9 Angular Kinematics 467
10 Linear Kinetics 471
11 Angular Kinetics 479
481
APPENDIX A The Metric System and SI Units
APPENDIX B Trigonometric Functions xi
APPENDIX C Sample Kinematic and Kinetic Data
APPENDIX D Numerical Example for Calculating Projectile Motion
Index
SECTION I
Foundations
of Human
Movement
CHAPTER 1
Basic Terminology
CHAPTER 2
Skeletal Considerations
for Movement
CHAPTER 3
Muscular Considerations
for Movement
CHAPTER 4
Neurological
Considerations
for Movement
CHAPTER 1
Basic Terminology
OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, the student will be able to:
1. Define mechanics, biomechanics, and kinesiology and differentiate among their uses
in the analysis of human movement.
2. Define and provide examples of linear and angular motion.
3. Define kinematics and kinetics.
4. Explain the difference between relative and absolute reference systems.
5. Define sagittal, frontal, and transverse planes along with corresponding frontal,
sagittal, and longitudinal axes. Provide examples of human movements that occur
in each plane.
6. Explain degree of freedom and provide examples of degrees of freedom associated with
numerous joints in the body.
7. Describe the location of segments or landmarks using correct anatomical terms, such
as medial, lateral, proximal, and distal.
8. Identify segments by their correct name, define all segmental movement descriptors,
and provide specific examples in the body.
Core Areas of Study Anatomical Terms
Biomechanics versus Kinesiology Movement Description
Anatomy versus Functional Anatomy Reference Systems
Linear versus Angular Motion Relative versus Absolute
Kinematics versus Kinetics Planes and Axes
Statics versus Dynamics Summary
Review Questions
Anatomical Movement Descriptors
Segment Names
To study kinesiology and biomechanics using this text- is the means by which we interact with our environment,
book requires a fresh mind. Remember that human whether we are simply taking a walk in a park, strength-
movement is the theme and the focus of study in both dis- ening muscles in a bench press, competing in the high
ciplines. A thorough understanding of various aspects of jump at a collegiate track meet, or stretching or rehabili-
human movement may facilitate better teaching, success- tating an injured joint. Movement, or motion, involves a
ful coaching, more observant therapy, knowledgeable change in place, position, or posture relative to some
exercise prescription, and new research ideas. Movement point in the environment.
3
4 SECTION I Foundations of Human Movement
This textbook focuses on developing knowledge in the of various structures. Finally, the chapter establishes a
area of human movement in such a manner that you will working vocabulary for movement description at both
feel comfortable observing human movement and solving structural and whole-body levels.
movement problems. Many approaches can be taken to
the study of movement, such as observing movement Core Areas of Study
using only the human eye or collecting data on movement
parameters using laboratory equipment. Observers of BIOMECHANICS VERSUS KINESIOLOGY
activities also have different concerns: A coach may be
interested in the outcome of a tennis serve, but a therapist Those who study human movement often disagree over
may be interested in identifying where in the serve an ath- the use of the terms kinesiology and biomechanics.
lete with tendinitis is placing the stress on the elbow. Kinesiology can be used in one of two ways. First, kinesi-
Some applications of biomechanics and kinesiology ology as the scientific study of human movement can be
require only a cursory view of a movement such as visual an umbrella term used to describe any form of anatomical,
inspection of the forearm position in the jump shot. Other physiological, psychological, or mechanical human move-
applications, such as evaluating the forces applied by a ment evaluation. Consequently, kinesiology has been used
hand on a basketball during a shot, require some advanced by several disciplines to describe many different content
knowledge and the use of sophisticated equipment and areas. Some departments of physical education and move-
techniques. ment science have gone so far as to adopt kinesiology as
their department name. Second, kinesiology describes the
Elaborate equipment is not needed to apply the mate- content of a class in which human movement is evaluated
rial in this text but is necessary to understand and inter- by examination of its source and characteristics. However,
pret numerical examples from data collected using such a class in kinesiology may consist primarily of functional
intricate instruments. Qualitative examples in this text anatomy at one university and strictly biomechanics at
describe the characteristics of movement. A qualitative another.
analysis is a nonnumeric evaluation of motion based on
direct observation. These examples can be applied directly Historically, a kinesiology course has been part of col-
to a particular movement situation using visual observa- lege curricula as long as there have been physical educa-
tion or video. tion and movement science programs. The course
originally focused on the musculoskeletal system, move-
This text also presents quantitative information. A ment efficiency from the anatomical standpoint, and joint
quantitative analysis is a numeric evaluation of the and muscular actions during simple and complex move-
motion based on data collected during the performance. ments. A typical student activity in the kinesiology course
For example, movement characteristics can be presented was to identify discrete phases in an activity, describe the
to describe the forces or the temporal and spatial compo- segmental movements occurring in each phase, and iden-
nents of the activity. The application of this material to a tify the major muscular contributors to each joint move-
practical setting, such as teaching a sport skill, is more dif- ment. Thus, if one were completing a kinesiological
ficult because it is more abstract and often cannot be visu- analysis of the act of rising from a chair, the movements
ally observed. Quantitative information can be important, would be hip extension, knee extension, and plantarflex-
however, because it often substantiates what is seen visu- ion via the hamstrings, quadriceps femoris, and triceps
ally in a qualitative analysis. It also directs the instructional surae muscle groups, respectively. Most kinesiological
technique because a quantitative analysis identifies the analyses are considered qualitative because they involve
source of a movement. For example, a front handspring observing a movement and providing a breakdown of the
can be qualitatively evaluated through visual observation skills and identification of the muscular contributions to
by focusing on such things as whether the legs are the movement.
together and straight, the back is arched, and the landing
is stable and whether the handspring was too fast or slow. The content of the study of kinesiology is incorporated
But it is through the quantitative analysis that the source into many biomechanics courses and is used as a precursor
of the movement, the magnitude of the forces generated, to the introduction of the more quantitative biomechani-
can be identified. A force cannot be observed qualitatively, cal content. In this text, biomechanics will be used as an
but knowing it is the source of the movement helps with umbrella term to describe content previously covered in
qualitative assessment of its effects, that is, the success of courses in kinesiology as well as content developed as a
the handspring. result of growth of the area of biomechanics.
This chapter introduces terminology that will be used In the 1960s and 1970s, biomechanics was developed
throughout the remainder of the text. The chapter begins as an area of study in the undergraduate and graduate cur-
by defining and introducing the various areas of study for ricula across North America. The content of biomechan-
movement analysis. This will be the first exposure to the ics was extracted from mechanics, an area of physics that
areas presented in much greater depth later in the text. consists of the study of motion and the effect of forces on
Then the chapter discusses methods and terminology an object. Mechanics is used by engineers to design and
describing how we arrive at the basic mechanical properties
CHAPTER 1 Basic Terminology 5
build structures and machines because it provides the muscles, nerve innervation of those muscles, and blood
tools for analyzing the strength of structures and ways of supply to those muscles and other significant structures
predicting and measuring the movement of a machine. It (e.g., ligaments) can be identified. A knowledge of
was a natural transition to take the tools of mechanics and anatomy can be put to good use if, for example, one is try-
apply them to living organisms. Biomechanics was ing to assess an injury. Assume a patient has a pain on the
defined by the American Society of Biomechanics (1) as inside of the elbow. Knowledge of anatomy allows one to
"the application of the laws of mechanics to animate recognize the medial epicondyle of the humerus as the
motion." Another definition proposed by the European prominent bony structure of the medial elbow. It also
Society of Biomechanics (2) is "the study of forces acting indicates that the muscles that pull the hand and fingers
on and generated within a body and the effects of these toward the forearm in a flexion motion attach to the epi-
forces on the tissues, fluid, or materials used for the diag- condyle. Thus, familiarity with anatomy may lead to a
nosis, treatment, or research purposes." diagnosis of medial epicondylitis, possibly caused by over-
use of the hand flexor muscles.
A biomechanical analysis evaluates the motion of a liv-
ing organism and the effect of forces on the living organ- Functional anatomy is the study of the body compo-
ism. The biomechanical approach to movement analysis nents needed to achieve or perform a human movement
can be qualitative, with movement observed and described, or function. Using a functional anatomy approach to ana-
or quantitative, meaning that some aspect of the move- lyze a lateral arm raise with a dumbbell, one should iden-
ment will be measured. The use of the term biomechanics tify the deltoid, trapezius, levator scapulae, rhomboid, and
in this text incorporates qualitative components with a supraspinatus muscles as contributors to upward rotation
more specific quantitative approach. In such an approach, and elevation of the shoulder girdle and abduction of the
the motion characteristics of a human or an object are arm. Knowledge of functional anatomy is useful in a vari-
described using such parameters as speed and direction; ety of situations, for example, to set up an exercise or
how the motion is created through application of forces, weight training program and to assess the injury potential
both inside and outside the body; and the optimal body in a movement or sport or when establishing training
positions and actions for efficient, effective motion. For techniques and drills for athletes. The prime consideration
example, to biomechanically evaluate the motion of rising of functional anatomy is not the muscle's location but the
from a chair, one attempts to measure and identify joint movement produced by the muscle or muscle group.
forces acting at the hip, knee, and ankle along with the
force between the foot and the floor, all of which act LINEAR VERSUS ANGULAR MOTION
together to produce the movement up out of the chair.
The components of a biomechanical and kinesiologic Movement or motion is a change in place, position, or
movement analysis are presented in Figure 1-1. We now posture occurring over time and relative to some point in
examine some of these components individually. the environment. Two types of motion are present in a
human movement or an object propelled by a human.
ANATOMY VERSUS FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY First is linear motion, often termed translation or trans-
lational motion. Linear motion is movement along a
Anatomy, the science of the structure of the body, is the straight or curved pathway in which all points on a body
base of the pyramid from which expertise about human or an object move the same distance in the same amount
movement is developed. It is helpful to develop a strong of time. Examples are the path of a sprinter, the trajectory
understanding of regional anatomy so that for a specific of a baseball, the bar movement in a bench press, and the
region such as the shoulder, the bones, arrangement of movement of the foot during a football punt. The focus in
FIGURE 1-1 Types of movement analysis. Movement
can be analyzed by assessing the anatomical contribu-
tions to the movement (functional anatomy), describing
the motion characteristics (kinematics), or determining
the cause of the motion (kinetics).
6 SECTION I Foundations of Human Movement
FIGURE 1-2 Examples of linear motion. Ways to apply linear motion the head move up and down? Side to side? If so, it is an
analysis include examination of the motion of the center of gravity or the indication that the central mass of the body is also moving
path of a projected object. in those directions. The path of the hand or racquet is
important in throwing and racquet sports, so visually
these activities is on the direction, path, and speed of the monitoring the linear movement of the hand or racquet
movement of the body or object. Figure 1-2 illustrates throughout the execution of the motion is beneficial. In
two focal points for linear movement analysis. an activity such as sprinting, the linear movement of the
whole body is the most important component to analyze
The center of mass of the body, of a segment, or of an because the object of the sprint is to move the body
object is usually the point monitored in a linear analysis quickly from one point to another.
(Fig. 1-2). The center of mass is the point at which the
mass of the object appears to be concentrated, and it rep- The second type of motion is angular motion, which
resents the point at which the total effect of gravity acts on is motion around some point so that different regions of
the object. However, any point can be selected and evalu- the same body segment or object do not move through
ated for linear motion. In skill analysis, for example, it is the same distance in a given amount of time. As illustrated
often helpful to monitor the motion of the top of the head in Figure 1-3, swinging around a high bar represents
to gain an indication of certain trunk motions. An exami- angular motion because the whole body rotates around
nation of the head in running is a prime example. Does the contact point with the bar. To make one full revolu-
tion around the bar, the feet travel through a much
greater distance than the arms because they are farther
from the point of turning. It is typical in biomechanics to
examine the linear motion characteristics of an activity and
then follow up with a closer look at the angular motions
that create and contribute to the linear motion.
All linear movements of the human body and objects
propelled by humans occur as a consequence of angular
contributions. There are exceptions to this rule such as
skydiving or free falling, in which the body is held in a
position to let gravity create the linear movement down-
ward, and when an external pull or push moves the body
or an object. It is important to identify the angular
motions and their sequence that make up a skill or human
movement because the angular motions determine the
success or failure of the linear movement.
Angular motions occur about an imaginary line called
the axis of rotation. Angular motion of a segment, such as
the arm, occurs about an axis running through the joint.
For example, lowering the body into a deep squat entails
angular motion of the thigh about the hip joint, angular
motion of the leg about the knee joint, and angular motion
of the foot about the ankle joint. Angular motion can also
occur about an axis through the center of mass. Examples
of this type of angular motion are a somersault in the air and
a figure skater's vertical spin. Finally, angular motion can
occur about a fixed external axis. For example, the body fol-
lows an angular motion path when swinging around a high
bar, with the high bar acting as the axis of rotation.
For proficiency in human movement analysis, it is nec-
essary to identify the angular motion contributions to the
linear motion of the body or an object. This is apparent in
a simple activity such as kicking a ball for maximum dis-
tance. The intent of the kick is to make contact between a
foot traveling at a high linear speed and moving in the
proper direction to send the ball in the desired direction.
The linear motion of interest is the path and velocity of
the ball after it leaves the foot. To create the high speeds
and the correct path, the angular motions of the segments
of the kicking leg are sequential, drawing speed from each
---
[Cuối tài liệu]
INDEX 487
force-velocity relationships control of muscle force, 112�115, Patella, 211, 213, 213�214
factors influencing, 84�88, 85�87 113, 114 compression fracture, 42
muscle actions and, 83, 83�84, 84 injuries, 223
general organization, 106, 106�107, 107 movements, 215, 215�216
functions, 66 motoneurons, 107�115
groups, 66, 67 motor units, 109�112, 111 Patella alta, 214, 223
hypertrophy, during resistance training, sensory receptors, 115�120 Patella baja, 214, 223
training adaptations, 120�125 Patellar tendon, 213
88, 88 Neural arch, 263 Patellofemoral compression force, 244�245
illustration, 65 Neuroma, Morton's, 238 Patellofemoral joint, 211, 213, 213�214
injury Neuromuscular junction, 70, 108, 109 Patellofemoral pain
Neurons. See also Motoneurons
cause and site, 94�96, 95 afferent, 116�118 extension exercises for, 221
inactivity and, 96 syndrome, 222�223
prevention, 96 type Ia primary, 116, 117, Pelvic complex, 188�208
irritability, 64 117�118, 118 hip joint, 192�197, 194�197. See also
length, whole, 84
mechanical model, 75, 75 type II secondary, 117, 117, 118 Hip joint
neural activation, force output and, 85 sensory, 107 injury potential, 206�208
one-joint, 81 structure, 108 ligaments, 190
origin versus insertion, 75�76, 76 Neutral equilibrium, 439 muscular actions, 199�202, 200�201
pennation angle, 68, 69 Neutralizing muscles, 78, 78 pelvic girdle, 188�192
power, 445�446, 446, 447 Newton, 371 Pelvic girdle, 188�192
preloading, 86, 86�87, 87 Newton, Isaac bones, 189
roles, 75�83 law of gravity, 372�373 gender differences, 188, 188
sarcopenia, 87�88 laws of motion, 371�372, 372 injuries, 43, 44, 206�207
soreness, after exercise, 95 Newton-Euler inverse dynamics approach, 387 movements, 191�192, 191�193
strengthening. See Strength training Nike Sports Science Laboratory, 377, 377 sacroiliac joint, 189, 189, 191
stress-strain curve, 73 Noncardinal plane, 18, 18 and thigh, combined movement, 191, 191,
structure, 66�69, 67�70 Noncontact force, 372�373
two-joint, 81�83, 82 Nonsupport (swing) phase of gait, 321, 322 197, 199
types, 64 Nuclear bag fiber, 116, 116 and trunk, combined movement, 191, 191,
volume, 68 Nuclear chain fiber, 116, 116
Muscle actions Nucleus pulposus, 261 270, 270�271, 271
agonists and antagonists, 78, 78 Nutation, 191, 191 Pelvifemoral rhythm, 199
comparison, 80, 80�81, 81 Pelvis, trunk and, combined movement,
concentric, 79, 79 Oblique muscles, 273, 275
eccentric, 79, 79 Odontoid process, 266 270, 271
examples, 80 Olecranon fossa, 157 Pennation angle, 68, 69
force-velocity relationships and, 83, Olecranon process, 157 Penniform muscle, 67, 67�68
Penniform muscles, 67
83�84, 84 traction apophysitis, 163 Perimysium, 69, 70
isometric, 78, 79 One-joint muscle, 81 Periodization, resistance training, 91
neutralizers, 78, 78 Open kinetic chain exercise, 93�94, 94 Periosteum, 35, 35
stabilizers, 78, 78 Optoelectric systems, high-speed, 302 Periostitis, 238
Muscle contraction Ordinate, 303 Peripheral nervous system, 106�107, 107
overview, 71, 71�72, 72 Origin, of reference frame, 16�17 Peroneal muscles, 235
sliding filament theory, 72, 72 Osgood-Schlatter disease, 44, 223 Pes anserinus, 216�217
Muscle fiber Osseous tissue. See Bone tissue Pes cavus, 230
anatomy, 69, 70 Ossification, 35�36 Pes planus, 230
fast twitch (type II), 69 Osteoarthritis, 53�54, 55 Physical inactivity
force-velocity relationship, 83
intermediate fast twitch, 69 ankle joint, 238 bone mineral density and, 36�37
length-tension relationship, 84�85, 85 apophyseal joints, 283 effects on muscle, 96
parallel arrangements, 66�67, 67 hip joint, 207 Physiological cross-section area, 68
penniform arrangements, 67, 67�68 Osteoblast, 33 Pinch, 170
slow-twitch (type I), 69 Osteochondral fracture, 239 Piriformis syndrome, 208
types, 68�69, 86 Osteochondritis dissecans, 163, 239 Pitcher's elbow, 163
Muscle force, 381�383, 382 Osteoclast, 33 Pivot joint, 52, 53
electromyography, 128, 129 Osteocyte, 33 Pivot point, 285
generation, 70�75, 71�75 Osteon, 33 Planar motion, 303
neural control, 112�115, 113, 114 Osteoporosis, 37�38 Plane(s), anatomical, 17�20, 18�21
output, fiber type and, 86 Overhand throwing. See Throwing Plane joint, 52, 53
tendon influences, 74�75 Overload, progressive, 90 Plantar fascia, 229�230, 230
transmission to bone, 72�75, 73, 74 Overuse injuries Plantar fasciitis, 238
Muscle spindle, 115�119, 116�119 acromioclavicular joint, 154 Plantarflexed first ray, 228, 232
Musculotendinous unit, 75, 75 elbow, 163 Plantarflexion, 15, 15, 226, 231, 232, 235
Myelination, 109 hand and fingers, 171 Plantaris, 232
Myofascial pain, low back, 284 running shoe and, 357 Plastic region, stress-strain curve, 29, 29, 39
Myofibril, 69, 70 wrist extensors, 163 Plica, 211
Myosin, 69, 70 injury, 223
Myositis ossificans, forearm, 163 Pacinian corpuscle, 120, 120 Plyometric exercise, 86�87, 87, 124�125, 125
Myotatic reflex, 115, 118, 118 Parallel axis theorem, 419 Point of application, 368
Myotendinous junction, 73�74 Parallel elastic component, Hill muscle Point of separation, 379, 379
Porosity, bone, 33
Neck, as segment, 9�10, 10 model, 75, 75 Position
Negative acceleration, 317 Parallel muscles, 66�67, 67 anatomical, 11, 11�12
Negative work, 444, 445 Passive insufficiency, two-joint muscle, 82�83 angular, 347
Nervous system Passive peak, 398 linear, 308
Passive range of motion, 122 Position-time curve, 314, 314�315, 315
Positive acceleration, 317
Positive work, 444, 445
Posterior aspect, 11, 11
488 INDEX
Posterior cruciate ligament, 211, 212, 213 distal, 164, 167 external, 13, 14, 14, 15
injuries, 222 injuries, 161, 163 internal, 13, 14, 14, 15
Radius, injuries, 171 radius of, 350
Posterior longitudinal ligament, 263 Radius of gyration, 418, 418t upward, 14, 15
Posterior motion segment, 263�264, Radius of rotation, 350 zero momentum, 420
Range of motion, 122�123 Rotational friction, 376
263�264 Rate coding, motor units, 113�115, 114 Rotational kinetic energy, 446�449, 448
Posture Rearfoot angle Rotational motion, 6�7, 7, 338, 338
description, 345�346, 346 Rotator cuff muscles, 145, 149, 149
deviations, 276�277, 277 knee angle and, 354, 354�355, 355 injuries, 154�155
sitting, 276 during walking and running, 357 Ruffini ending, 119�120, 120
standing, 275�276 Rearfoot varus, 231 Running
working, 276 Reciprocal inhibition, 118 angular kinematics, 355�357, 356
Potential energy, 392�393 Rectangular reference system, 303 angular kinetics, 449�450, 449�451
Power Rectification, 127, 128 angular momentum requirements,
angular, 445�446, 446, 447 Rectilinear motion, 302, 302
muscle, 445�446, 446, 447 Rectus femoris, 81, 82, 216 422, 422
and work, 83, 391�392 Reference frame, absolute versus relative, energy transfer during, 394, 395
Power grip, 170, 170 joint forces, 245, 245�246
Precision grip, 170, 170 16�17, 17 linear kinematics, 319�323, 320�324, 320t
Prehensile grip, 170 Reference positions, starting, 10, 10 linear kinetics, 397�400, 397�401
Preloading, 86, 86�87, 87 Reference systems, 16�20, 18�21 lower extremity in, 240, 240�242
Pressure, 396�397, 397 motor unit recruitment, 112�113
Prestretch 2D, 303, 303, 304, 304 multiple plane movements, 20
neural effects, 121 3D, 304, 304 pelvis and trunk movement relationship in,
technique, 86�87, 87, 124 kinematic data collection, 302�305,
Progressive overload, 90 270�271, 271
Projectile motion 303�305 rearfoot angle-time graph, 346, 346
energy changes, 393, 393 planes and axes, 17�20, 18�21 rearfoot motion, 357
equations of constant acceleration, 330, relative versus absolute, 16�17, 17 stress-strain relationship during, 30, 30
Reflex stride parameters, 320, 320�321, 320t, 321
330�331, 479�480 crossed extensor, 115, 116 trunk muscles in, 286
factors influencing, 327�329, flexor, 115, 116 velocity curve, 321�322, 322, 323
inverse stretch, 119 velocity variations during, 322�323, 324
327�329, 328t labyrinthine righting, 115, 116 Running shoes
gravity force on, 326 myotatic, 115, 118, 118 knee-rearfoot angle relationships, 354�355,
linear kinematics, 326�329, 327�329, 328t propriospinal, 115, 116
optimizing, 329 simple, 115, 115 355
trajectory, 326, 327 stretch, 115, 118, 118 overuse injuries and, 357
Projection angle, 327, 327�328, 328t supraspinal, 115, 116 Running speed, 320, 321
Projection height, 328�329, 329 tonic neck, 115, 116
Projection velocity, 328, 328 Reflex arc, monosynaptic, 118 Sacral extension, 191, 191
Pronation, 14, 15, 15�16, 157 Reflexes, 115, 116 Sacral flexion, 191, 191
foot, 226, 227, 227, 231, 235, 235 Relative angle, 10, 10, 342, 342�343, 343 Sacroiliac joint
measurement, 345, 346 Relative reference frame, 17, 17
Propelling phase, 400 Remote angular momentum, 421 anatomy, 189, 189
Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation, Renshaw cell, 114 injuries, 207
Repolarization, 71, 110 movements, 191, 191
123�124, 124 Resistance Sacroiliitis, 207
Proprioceptors, 115 air, 378 Sacrum
Propriospinal reflex, 115, 116 fluid, 378�381, 378�382 injuries, 207
Propulsive drag, 380 Resistance arm, 430 movements, 191, 191
Propulsive lift, 381 Resistance force, 430 Saddle joint, 52, 53
Proteoglycan, 49 Resistance training. See Strength training Safety factor, stress-strain relationship, 30
Protraction, 14, 15, 141, 142 Resting potential, 71 Sagittal plane, 18, 18
Proximal aspect, 11, 11 Resultant, 304 Sagittal plane movements, 19, 19
Psoas, origin versus insertion, 76, 76 Retraction, 14, 15, 141, 142 Sarcolemma, 69, 70
Pubic ligament, 189 Retrocalcaneal bursitis, 238 Sarcomere, 69, 70
Pubic symphysis, 189 Retroversion, femoral, 196, 196 Sarcopenia, 87�88
Pubis, 189 Review questions Sarcoplasm, 69, 70
Pubofemoral ligament, 195 angular kinematics, 361�363 Sarcoplasmic reticulum, 69, 70
Pumping technique, wheelchair propulsion, angular kinetics, 456�458 Scalars, kinematic analysis, 305
basic terminology, 22�23 Scaphoid, 164, 167
325, 326 linear kinematics, 332�334 Scapula
linear kinetics, 405�407 anatomy and functional characteristics,
Q-angle, 213, 213�214 lower extremity, 248�250
Quadrants, 303, 304 muscular system, 97�99 142, 142
Quadratus lumborum, 274 nervous system, 130�132 bursitis, 154
Quadriceps femoris, 216, 219 skeletal system, 56�57 injuries, 154
trunk, 292�293 movements, 142�143, 143
injuries, 222 upper extremity, 181�183
Qualitative analysis, 4 Revolution (about a circle), 339, 339 descriptors, 14, 15
Quantitative analysis, 4 Riemann sum, 319 relationship to arm movements,
Right-hand rule, 346, 346
Radial acceleration, 352�353, 353 Right lateral flexion, 14, 15 146, 146
Radial collateral ligament, 158, 158 Right rotation, 13, 14 Scapulohumeral rhythm, 146, 146
Radial flexion, 15 Rotation, 13�14, 14 Scapulothoracic joint, 142, 142�143
Radian, 339, 339�340 axis (axes) of, 6, 7, 17, 18, 338, 338 Scheuermann's disease, 284
Radiate muscle, 67, 67 downward, 14, 15 Schmorl's nodes, 283
Radiocarpal joint, 163, 164, 167 Schwann cell, 108, 109
Radiohumeral joint, 156, 157 Sciatica, 284
Radioulnar joint, 156, 157 Scoliosis, 277
INDEX 489
Screw-home mechanism, 214�215 Spondylolysis, 42, 284, 284 shear, 40, 41
Secant line, 314, 314 Squat, 219 Stress fracture, 47, 47�48, 48t, 49
Segment angle, 17, 17, 340 Stability, factors influencing, 439�440, 440 Stress-strain curve
Segment names, 9�10, 10 Stabilizing muscles, 78, 78
Sensory neurons, 107 Stable equilibrium, 439 bone, 39, 39, 73
Sensory receptors, 115�120 Stair ascent and descent, lower extremity in, bone vertebral segments, 28, 29
compliant, stiff, and brittle materials,
Golgi tendon organ, 119, 120 239, 239�240
muscle spindle, 115�119, 116�119 Standing posture, 275�276 31, 31
reflexes and, 115, 115, 116 Standing toe touch, 274 elastic material, 29, 30
tactile and joint, 119�120, 120 Starting position, anatomical, 10, 10 elastic-plastic regions, 29, 29, 39
Separated flow, 379, 379 Static stretching, 123 energy lost (hysteresis), 31, 31
Separation, point of, 379, 379 Statics energy stored, 30, 30
Series elastic component, Hill muscle model, failure point, 29, 29
angular motion, 435�440, 435�441 ligaments, 50, 50
75, 75 applications, 440, 441 muscle, 73
Sesamoid bone, 34 versus dynamics, 9 tendon, 73
Shear forces, 41, 41t, 44, 44, 395 linear motion, 385�386, 385�387 viscoelastic material, 30�31, 31
Shear fracture, 44 Step, definition, 320, 320 yield point, 29, 29
Shear strain, 40, 41 Sternoclavicular joint Stress-strain relationship
Shear stress, 40, 41 anatomy and functional characteristics, 140, during jogging, 30, 30
Shin splints, 43 safety factor, 30
Short bone, 34, 35 140�141 Stress-strain structural analysis, 28�30,
Shoulder girdle, 140�155 injuries, 154
Stiff material, stress-strain curve, 31, 31 28�30
conditioning exercises, 151, 152�153 Stiffness Stretch-contract cycle, 86, 86�87, 87, 124
injury potential, 151, 154�155 bone tissue, 39, 39 Stretch reflex, 115, 118, 118
isometric force output, angle and, 76, 78 calculation, 29
joint forces and moments, 179 Straight-line motion, 302, 302 inverse, 119
joints Strain. See also Stress-strain entries Stretching, flexibility and, 121�123, 123
bone, 47, 47�48, 48t, 49 Stretching exercises, 121�124
anatomy and functional characteristics, measurement, 29
140�145, 140�146 normal, 40, 41 for ankle/foot, 235�237, 236
residual, 29 ballistic, 122�123
combined movement characteristics, 146, shear, 40, 41 for elbow and forearm, 161, 162
146�147 Strain energy, 393 for fingers and wrist, 170�171, 172
Strap muscle, 67, 67 for hip joint muscles, 203�206, 204�205
ligaments, 140, 141, 141�142, 143, 145 Streamlining of shape, 379, 380 for knee joint, 210, 219�221
movement descriptors, 14, 15, 16t Strength overview, 121�123, 123
muscle strength, 151 bone tissue, 38, 39 proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation
muscular actions, 147�150, 147�151
development, 44, 44 after, 123�124, 124
abduction or flexion, 147, definition, 88 for shoulder muscles, 151, 152�153
147�149, 149 Strength training, 88�94. See also Weight static, 123
for trunk, 277�281, 278�280
adduction or extension, 149�150, 150 lifting
horizontal, 150�151 for ankle/foot, 235�237, 236 core training, 281, 282
internal and external rotation, 150, 150 for elbow and forearm, 161, 162 extensors, 278�279, 280�281
range of motion, 146 for fingers and wrist, 170�171, 172 flexibility and, 281
as segment, 10, 10 for hip joint muscles, 203�206, 204�205 flexors, 277, 278, 280
Shoulder joint. See Glenohumeral joint intensity, 89�90 lateral flexors, 279, 281
SI (Syst�me International d'Unit�s) units, for knee joint, 210, 219�221 rotators, 279, 281
modalities Striated muscle, 64
305, 463, 464t�465t Stride
Simple reflex, 115, 115 closed and open kinetic chain, definition, 320, 320
Sit-reach test, 281 93�94, 94 frequency, oxygen consumption and,
Sitting posture, 276
Size principle, motor unit recruitment, 112 functional training, 94 320�321, 321
Skeletal muscle. See Muscle entries isokinetic, 93, 93 parameters, 320, 320�321, 320t, 321
Skeletal system isometric, 92 Structural analysis
isotonic, 92, 92�93 stress-strain properties, 28�30, 28�30
bones, 31�48. See also Bone multivector training, 94 types of materials, 30�31, 31
bony articulations, 50�54, 54t. See also neural adaptations, 120�121, 121 Subacromial bursae, 145
for nonathlete, 91�92 Subacromial bursitis, 155
Joint(s) principles, 89�92, 90, 91t Subacromial impingement syndrome, 155
cartilage, 48�50 program components, 88 Subtalar joint
injuries, 48t rest intervals, 90�91 anatomy and function, 224, 225�227,
ligaments, 50 for shoulder muscles, 151, 152�153
Ski boot fracture, 45, 45 skeletal muscle hypertrophy during, 226, 227
Sliding filament theory, 72, 72 forces, 245
Slipped capital femoral epiphysis, 207 88, 88 knee and, combined movements, 231
Slope, velocity and, 311, 311 specificity, 89, 90, 121 Superior aspect, 11, 11
Snapping hip syndrome, 208 strength progression during, 89 Supination, 14, 15, 16, 157
Soccer kick, 381, 382 for trunk, 277�281, 278�280 foot, 226�227, 227
Soft tissue, flexibility and, 122 measurement, 345, 346
Soleus, 232 core training, 281, 282 Support (stance) phase of gait, 321, 322
Soma, 108, 108 extensors, 278�279, 280�281 Supraspinal reflex, 115, 116
Speed flexibility and, 281 Supraspinous ligament, 264
angular, 347�348 flexors, 277, 278, 280 Surface drag, 378
linear, 310 lateral flexors, 279, 281 Swimming, 173
Spinal cord, 106, 106 rotators, 279, 281 Synapse, 108, 109
Spinal nerves, 106�107, 107 volume, 91 Synarthrodial (fibrous) joint, 52, 54
Spinal stabilization, 275 Stress Synchronous movements, 114�115
Spine. See Vertebral column measurement, 28�29 Synovial joint. See Diarthrodial joint
Spinous process, 263 normal, 40, 41 Synovial membrane, 51, 51
Spiral fracture, 46, 46
Spondylolisthesis, 44, 284, 284
490 INDEX
T-tubule, 69, 70 Tibiofemoral joint, 208, 209, 210�211 as segment, 9�10, 10
Tactile sensory receptors, 119�120, 120 Tibiofibular joint, 214, 214, 223 strength, 275
Talocalcaneal joint. See Subtalar joint Tibiotalar joint, 223 vertebral column, 260�271. See also
Talocrural joint. See Ankle Time domain, electromyography, 127, 128
Talofibular ligament, sprain, 238 Timing factors, kinematic analysis, 305 Vertebral column
Talonavicular joint, 227 Toe(s) Turbulent flow, 379, 379
Talus, 225 Twitch, 72, 72
Morton's, 245 Two-joint muscle, 81�83, 82
osteochondral fracture, 239 movement descriptors, 16t
Tangent, 340�341 Toe touch, standing, 274 injury risk, 94, 95
Toeing-in, 195, 197
inverse, 341 Tonic neck reflex, 115, 116 Ulnar collateral ligament, 157�158, 158
Tangential acceleration, 352, 352, 353 Torque, 76, 77 Ulnar flexion, 15
Tangential velocity, 351, 351 acting on system, representation, Ulnar nerve injury, 173
Tarsometatarsal joint, 224, 228 Ulnohumeral joint, 155, 156, 157
Tendon 433�434, 434 Unipennate muscle, 67, 68
calculation, 413�414 Units of measurement, 305, 463, 464t�465t
characteristics, 73, 73�74, 74 characteristics, 412�414, 413�415 Unstable equilibrium, 439
force-time characteristics, 74�75 definition, 412 Uphill walking, 357
muscle attachment via, 72�73, 73 effects Upper extremity
stress-strain analysis, 28, 28
stress-strain curve, 73 at instant in time, 435�442 functional anatomy, 139�181
Tennis elbow, 163 over a distance, 443�444 elbow and radioulnar joints, 155�163
Tennis serve, topspin, trunk muscles in, 286, over a time period, 442�443 shoulder complex, 140�155
special applications, 445�449 wrist and fingers, 163�173
287�288 types, 433, 433, 434
Tenosynovitis, 171 Z-axis, 412, 412 glossary, 185�186
Tensile fracture, 42�44 Torque arm, 413, 413 in golf swing, 177�178, 177�179
Tension forces, 41, 41t, 42�44, 43 Torsional forces, 41, 41t, 46, 46 joint forces and moments, 179
Tension-length relationship, muscle fiber, Torsional fracture, 46, 46 nerves, 107
Total body center of mass, 427, 427�428, in overhand throwing, 173�177, 174�176
84�85, 85 plyometric exercises, 125, 125
Tetanus, 72, 72 428, 429t�430t review questions, 181�183
Thenar eminence, 169 Towed sled device, 377, 377 Upward rotation, 14, 15
Thigh Trabeculae, 33, 34
Traction apophysitis, olecranon process, 163 Valgus, 195, 196, 211
angular kinematics, 348, 349t, 350 Training. See also Exercise Varus, 195, 196
compartments, 66, 67 Vastus medialis, 216
conditioning exercises, 203�206, 204�205 neural adaptations, 120�125 Vectors. See also Force(s)
movement descriptors, 14, 15, 16t resistance. See Strength training
movements, 197, 197 Trajectory, 326, 327 addition, 306, 306
muscular actions, 199�202, 200�201 Translation (translatory motion). See Linear angular motion, 346, 346
combination, 307�308
abduction, 201�202, 203 (translatory) motion fluid resistance, 378�381, 378�382
adduction, 202, 203 Translational friction, 376 force, composition and resolution, 370
extension, 199, 201 Transverse abdominus, 273�274, 275 kinematic analysis, 305�308, 306, 307
flexion, 199 Transverse arch, 228, 230, 230 multiplication, 306, 306
rotation, 202 Transverse plane, 18, 18 polarity, 346, 346
pelvis and, combined movement, 191, 191, Transverse plane movements, 19, 21 resolution, 306, 306�307, 307
Transverse process, 263 Velocity
197, 199 Transverse tubule, 69, 70 angular, 347�348
as segment, 10, 10 Traumatic fracture, 47 first central distance method of calculating,
strength, 202�203 Trigger finger, 171
Thoracic kyphosis, 277 Trigonometric functions, 467�470, 468�470, 312, 312�313
Thoracic spine graphical example, 314, 314�315, 315
anatomy and function, 266, 267, 268, 268 468t�469t instantaneous, 314, 314
connection to ribs, 268 Trochlea, 155, 157 linear, 310�315, 311�315, 311t
injuries, 284 Trochlear notch, 157 numerical example, 313, 313, 313t
movements, 268 Trunk, 259�292 projection, 328, 328
range of motion, 269 rate of change. See Acceleration
Thoracolumbar fascia, 269 aging effects, 286 relationship between angular and linear,
Three-point bending load, 45, 45 conditioning exercises, 277�281
Throwing 351, 351, 352
elbow injuries, 163 core training, 281, 282 slope and, 311, 311
injuries, 155 extensors, 278�279, 280�281 tangential, 351, 351
multiple plane movements, 20, 21 flexibility and, 281 Velocity curve, locomotion, 321�322, 322, 323
shoulder joint rotation, 150, 150 flexors, 277, 278, 280 Velocity-time curve, 314, 314�315, 315
upper extremity muscular contribution, lateral flexors, 279, 281 Ventral aspect, 11, 11
rotators, 279, 281 Vertebral body, 261
173�177, 174�176 contribution to sports skills or movements, Vertebral column, 260�271
Thumb apophyseal joints, 263�264
286, 287�288 cervical region, 265, 265�268, 266, 267
carpometacarpal joint, 167�168 glossary, 296�298 conditioning exercises, 277�281, 278�280
interphalangeal joint, 168 injury potential, 281, 283�285, 283�286 curvature, 260
metacarpophalangeal joint, 168 joint forces, 286�287, 289�290, 289�291 ligaments, 263, 263�264, 264
movement descriptors, 16t movement descriptors, 16t loads on, 286�287, 289�290, 289�291
muscles, 164, 170 muscular actions, 271�274, 272�273 lumbar region, 266, 267, 268�269
Tibia, 208, 209, 223, 224 motion segment
strain rates, 46, 46�47, 47 extension, 271
Tibial plateau, 210 flexion, 271, 273�274 anterior, 260�263, 261�262
Tibial tuberosity lateral flexion, 274 posterior, 263�264, 263�264
formation, 42, 43 rotation, 274
tensile forces at, 42�43 pelvis and, combined movement, 191, 191,
Tibialis anterior, 235
Tibiofemoral compression force, 244 270, 270�271, 271
range of motion, 269, 269�270
review questions, 292�293
INDEX 491
muscular actions, 271�274, 272�273 hip, knee, and ankle angles during, 345 external, 395
posture joint forces, 245, 245 internal, 394
linear kinematics, 319�323, 320�324, 320t mechanical, 391
deviations, 276�277, 277 linear kinetics, 397, 397�401, 398 power and, 391�392
sitting, 276 lower extremity in, 241, 242 relationship to energy, 393�395, 395,
standing, 275�276 motor unit recruitment, 112, 113
working, 276 rearfoot motion, 357 448�449
range of motion, 269 stride parameters, 320, 320�321, Working posture, 276
regional variations, 266, 267 Wrist
stabilization, 275 320t, 321
strength, 275 support and double support during, conditioning exercises, 170�171, 172
thoracic region, 266, 267, 268, 268 injury potential, 163, 171, 173, 173
total, movement characteristics, 269, 321, 322 joints
trunk muscles in, 286
269�270 two-joint muscle actions, 82, 82 anatomy and functional characteristics,
Vertebral foramen, 263 Warmup, neural effects, 121 163, 164�166, 167�168
Vertex, 338, 338 Weight lifting. See also Strength training
Vertical coordinates, 303, 304 compression fracture, 42 combined movements, 168
Vertical jumping, 389�391, 390 force-velocity relationship, 83 ligaments, 164
Video, high-speed, 302 free body diagram, 440, 441 movement descriptors, 15, 15
Viscoelastic material, stress-strain curve, proper technique, 276, 285, 285 muscular actions, 164�166,
training program, volume of work, 91
30�31, 31 Weight of object, 373 168�170, 169
Viscosity, fluid, 378 Wheelchair propulsion range of motion, 167
Viscous drag, 378 angular kinematics, 359�360, 360
angular kinetics, 452�454, 453 X, y, z space, 303
Walking cycle parameters, 325, 325 X-y plane, 303
absolute angle calculations, 341, linear kinematics, 325, 325�326, 326
341�342, 342t linear kinetics, 402�403, 403 Yield point, 29, 29
absolute angle data for thigh during, 348, propulsion styles, 325�326, 326
349t, 350 Whiplash, 284 Z-axis, 412, 412
angular kinematics, 355�357, 356 Wolff's law, 35 Zero momentum rotation, 420
angular kinetics, 449�450, 449�451 Work Zero position, 10, 10
energy components during, 448, 448 angular, 443�444, 445, 448�449